A. Integration and social cohesion

General discussions of integration or social cohesion

A1 European Council on Refugees and Exiles. (2005). The way forward: towards the integration of refugees in Europe. Brussels: European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Research focus/aims: This paper is one in a series of proposals entitled The Way Forward -Europe's Role in the Global Refugee Protection System. These proposals are designed to provide constructive recommendations on a number of topical refugee policy issues and contribute to positively influencing the European debate

Participants: No participants.

Key findings/outcomes: Where refugees are marginalised - through negative media reporting, political antipathy, insecure legal status, a lack of educational and employment opportunities, and/or hostility from local communities - there is less integration. Those who feel threatened or excluded from the host society, instead of striving to belong, may seek to emphasise their difference through isolating themselves in their own communities and may also be more open to radical influences. The development of an inclusive and welcoming society is a key prerequisite to the successful integration of refugees.

Governments, politicians and their parties, the media and educational institutions all have a role to play in fostering understanding and solidarity, and ensuring accurate and balanced public information on refugee issues. Granting rights similar to those enjoyed by nationals to all refugees would improve their integration prospects. The authors argue that the acquisition of citizenship remains the most potent measure of integration into a host society by foreign nationals. Participation in the political decision making process promotes integration.

Failure by governments to address barriers to socioeconomic integration can result in the marginalisation of refugees and impact negatively on society as a whole. Separation from families impedes refugees' integration. Successful cultural integration requires a common understanding of the core values that underlie the cultures of democratic European countries.

Recommendations: Includes numerous policy and practice recommendations under each section: creating a welcoming society; acquisition of rights; civic integration; socioeconomic integration; cultural integration.

Scope: Discussion paper that does not take a particularly long-term approach. The recommendations mostly refer to the earlier stages of settlement to ensure a good beginning.

Country research undertaken in: European Union.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; citizenship; social exclusion; economic participation; education/training; civic/political participation; host country/region: Europe; research methods: discussion paper; refugees, including asylum seekers.

A2 Ives, N. (2005). 'Understanding Bosnian refugee integration and how it differs by country of resettlement: Denmark and the United States of America. Abstract only. Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 66(2), 76-A.

Research focus/aims: Juxtaposing refugee perspectives and policies, this study compared lived experience with policies on paper. The study examined the integration of refugees in Denmark and the USA and how similarities and differences in achieving integration related to the resettlement country's policy contexts, programmes and ideological traditions.

Participants: Bosnian refugees who had resettled in Denmark and the USA.

Key findings/outcomes: Findings revealed that both groups struggled with language and employment challenges to integration. Social support networks that included Americans/Danes aided integration as they provided significant support in navigating resettlement. American congregational sponsorship mediated struggles church-sponsored participants faced, facilitating integration. A key difference between the groups was the extent to which participants felt a sense of national affiliation and were able to move beyond integration to achieve normalcy. In Denmark, participants tended to feel separate from Danish society and did not believe that Bosnian culture was valued and accepted on a par with Danish culture. In the USA, where participants endured financial struggles, particularly in the first year, their unwavering faith in America as a land of immigrants and their belief that they could fully belong in American society distinguished them from refugees in Denmark.

Recommendations: Implications include a re-evaluation of American resettlement policy regarding national standards for resettlement services; wider recognition of refugees' educational qualifications and an inclusion of refugee voices in planning and implementing resettlement programmes in both countries. The author also proposes a re-evaluation of Danish integration policies to address refugees' segregation and an acknowledgement of the changing fabric of Danish life to legitimately incorporate ethnic minorities.

Scope: This qualitative comparative case study explored the cases of 48 Bosnian refugees who had resettled in Denmark and the USA. Data was gathered through interviews with refugees and key informants, participant observation and documents.

Country research undertaken in: Denmark and USA.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; religion; social capital/networks; social exclusion; host country/region: role; host country/region: Denmark; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Bosnia; research methods: interviews; research methods: ethnographic; refugees.

A3 Kandola, P. (2003). Research on the integration into the local community of persons who achieve status/leave to remain. Dublin: Reception and Integration Agency, Ministry of Justice, Equality and Law Reform.

Research focus/aims: The purpose of research was to provide the Irish government's Reception and Integration Agency with evidence-based data on the needs of people who leave direct provision and move out into the community having obtained refugee status or leave to remain in the state.

Participants: 23 refugees of mixed ethnicities, gender and age, 18 service providers (including community and social welfare agencies, citizens advice bureaux, housing associations, victim support, language and education providers and libraries) and nine support groups (including women's centres, refugee and migrant support groups and networks) across four locations in Ireland.

Key findings/outcomes: The investigation and report was structured around the nine areas previously identified in the Irish report Integration: a two way process (1999) [A30]. These areas were: community and culture; language skills; housing; employment/training; recognition of skills and training; education for children and adults; accessing mainstream services including health and social welfare; family reunification and individuals' vision for the future. Detailed findings were presented from the perspectives of refugees, service providers and support groups along with things that facilitated (enablers) or acted as barriers to integration. Overall findings included the following:

• A large number of barriers to refugee integration in the local community were identified for each of the nine areas. Some were identified as intangible barriers, such as public perceptions, lack of awareness and lack of recognition of skills, which can sometimes result in racial discrimination. These may underpin many of the tangible barriers faced by refugees such as difficulties in accessing housing, employment, training and mainstream services.
• Assistance is needed by refugees to move from direct provision into independent living in the community. The main barrier perceived by refugees is in finding a house, and they find it difficult to address other issues until this is satisfied. In addition, refugees also face barriers in establishing a place in society for themselves including discrimination and a failure to recognise overseas qualifications and skills. This resulted in considerable downward professional mobility for some. This, together with perceived discriminatory attitudes among both the public and service providers, is seen as a fundamental blocker to settling in and being accepted in the community.
• Commonly identified themes for overcoming barriers included: raising cultural awareness; information; provision of support; language; recognition of skills and qualifications; and processing information (relating to registration, waiting times for housing).

Discussions identified a number of areas in which refugees can make positive contributions to the local community including: the integration of new skills and ideas into the local community; contributions to the education curriculum; enrichment of the sporting and social world in Ireland (for example, through new activities, music, or cooking skills); and through assisting host communities to evolve culturally by building a diverse multicultural society.

Recommendations: The author suggests implementation of initiatives to:

• raise public awareness of the rights and needs of refugees (and those granted leave to remain) to dispel misconceptions that could fuel discriminatory practices
• ensure service providers the information they need to collaborate and co-operate providing services to refugees at each stage of the integration process
• harness the skills and qualifications of the refugee community in order to facilitate integration and foster benefits for both the refugee and host community
• ensure refugees (and those with leave to remain) know about the availability of English and that classes are conducted in a culturally appropriate way
• provide refugees (and those with leave to remain) relevant information on areas such as access to housing, education, training, and employment in a culturally appropriate and timely nature
• identify inefficiencies in the processes that refugees come into contact with (for example, administrative processing times) and either take steps to improve these inefficiencies, or where this not possible, inform refugees of the nature of the process (to avoid any frustrations that may occur at later stages of the process).

Scope: Finding were drawn from interviews or focus group meetings held with 23 refugees, 18 service providers and nine support groups. The length of time that refugees had been in Ireland is not identified.

Country research undertaken in: Ireland.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; social capital/networks; community participation; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; housing; research methods: interviews; host country/region: Ireland; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; refugees, including asylum seekers.

A4 Martiniello, M. (2004). How to combine integration and diversities: the challenge of an EU multicultural citizenship. Vienna: European Union Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC).

Research focus/aims: This is a high-level discussion paper which discusses the need for an EU model of diversity.

Participants: Not applicable

Key findings/outcomes: The paper discusses the management of cultural diversity and integration, including whether or not states or the EU as a whole should intervene to promote respect for social diversity and reduce social and economic exclusion and inequalities. The author notes that models of multicultural policies cannot be transferred from one country to another. They should take into account the local social and political context as well as the sociological characteristics of the population and the demands of minority and majority groups in the field of cultural diversity.

The paper recognises debates on education, language teaching, religion, access to citizenship (either as a mark of integration or as a facilitator of integration) and issues of political participation.

Recommendations: Suggestions include:

• states providing some financial support to immigrant associations engaged in action aimed at encouraging better knowledge of cultural diversity and bridging the gap between cultural groups
• strong anti-racist and anti-discrimination legislation and policies and close monitoring of racism and discrimination
• opening up public education to cultural diversity and encouraging all residents to speak the national language of the country they live in as well as their own
• allowing duel citizenship.

Scope: This is a reflective high-level paper, not based on specific research studies and not specifically referring to refugees.

Country research undertaken in: Europe

Keywords: Integration/social cohesion; citizenship; civic/political participation; religion; social exclusion; education/training; ESOL/language acquisition; host country/region: European Union; research methods: discussion paper; migrants, including refugees.

A5 Ministry of Social Development. (2008). Diverse communities - exploring the migrant and refugee experience in New Zealand. Wellington: New Zealand, Strategic Social Policy Group, Ministry of Social Development.

Research focus/aims: The report brings together existing data and research findings on migrant and refugee outcomes in New Zealand and their relationship to social cohesion.

Participants: Migrants and refugees in New Zealand.

Key findings/outcomes: The report discusses definitions of social cohesion and the relationship between settlement outcomes and social cohesion. It brings together current knowledge about issues facing refugees and migrants in relation to: belonging; participation; inclusion; recognition and legitimacy. It acknowledges a lack of data on many topics, including outcomes for second and subsequent generations; outcomes at regional and local level; host and migrant/refugee perceptions and interactions and comparisons with overseas experiences.

The report includes a statistical profile of the overseas-born population of New Zealand. It discusses four factors relevant to belonging - attachment to identities; trust in others; satisfaction with life in New Zealand; intention of staying in New Zealand - and notes that belonging is heavily influenced by the attitudes of established communities in New Zealand to new migrants and refugees. Factors relevant to participation include social connectedness, participation in political and civic affairs and English language proficiency. It has little information directly relevant to refugees, but does note that the ability to converse in English increases with length of residence for both migrant and refugee groups. Refugees who were more established in New Zealand were more likely to belong to a club or group than more recent arrivals.

The chapter on inclusion describes barriers to employment. Barriers include: discrimination; lack of English language proficiency or having a non-New Zealand accent; lack of New Zealand work experience; difficulty getting overseas qualifications recognised; and lack of social networks and knowledge about how the New Zealand labour market operates. Additional challenges for refugees include limited access to relevant education and skill development opportunities prior to arrival and the largely informal nature of refugees' employment in their country of origin. Some women also have issues with employers over the way they dress. In 2006, employment rates for prime working-age migrants born in countries where many of New Zealand's refugees come from were significantly below those for the New Zealand-born - 20 percent below for males and 28 percent for females. After these groups had been resident in New Zealand for more than ten years, the difference in employment rates between the New Zealand and refugee source country-born had reduced to 13 percent (with 69 percent of individuals being employed, compared with 82 percent of New Zealand-born).

In 2001, people born in Afghanistan, Somalia, Kuwait, Bangladesh and Iraq had the highest unemployment rate in New Zealand (at four to five times the national average). The main characteristics of these groups were that they came from refugee backgrounds, were targets for discrimination because of their appearance and were non-westernised, with strong extended family systems that do not fit easily with the prevailing norms in a highly western-based, nuclear family-oriented welfare state. Countries that provide New Zealand with refugees have very high unemployment rates. Some countries such as Somalia, Iran and Afghanistan have prime working-age unemployment rates between 10 percent and 20 percent. For people born in Iraq and Iran who had been resident in New Zealand for 10 to 14 years, unemployment rates were very similar to the New Zealand-born. However, their participation in the labour market was still lower, particularly for women.

People born in predominantly refugee source countries had lower incomes on average than New Zealand-born people. Incomes relative to the New Zealand-born population improved with time spent in New Zealand. For example, Iraqi born migrants who moved to New Zealand between 1991 and 1996 had median incomes on par with the New Zealand-born population.

The chapter on recognition notes that visible ethnic minorities may bear the brunt of discriminatory action in New Zealand. The paper also found evidence of prejudice against Muslims, particularly Muslim women. The final chapter considers legitimacy and, in particular, confidence in state institutions and representations in mass media. The paper found no direct evidence on refugees' level of confidence in state institutions but does cite evidence of different refugee groups being treated differently in the media.

Recommendations: The paper includes suggestions in each chapter for further research.

Scope: The paper draws together existing data and reviews New Zealand research.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; civic/political participation; social capital/networks; social exclusion; education/training; economic participation; women; health/wellbeing; migrants, including refugees; research methods: review.

A6 Peckham, D., Wallace, E., Wilby, C. and Noble, J. (2004). The impact of Home Office funded services for refugees: findings from an exploratory survey of clients. Online Report 45/04. London: Home Office.

Research focus/aims: The European Refugee Fund and the Challenge Fund provide funding for projects aimed at helping refugees and asylum seekers to settle and integrate into the UK. The study examined the impact on refugees of projects funded through the two schemes.

Participants: Refugees and asylum seekers.

Key findings/outcomes: The circumstances of refugees appeared to improve a little after two or three years of residence in Britain in terms of English skills, satisfaction with housing and income. However, even after this time, refugees remained severely disadvantaged, especially when compared with the rest of the UK population. Only 8 percent of the sample was working full- or part-time.

For project clients who had been in the UK for three years or more, housing (68 percent) and health (47 percent) continued to be important priorities for improvement. Other issues had risen in importance, including employment (41 percent), crime and safety (35 percent) and social life and leisure (22 percent).

Fifty percent of respondents who had lived in the UK for three years or more said that they could communicate all or most things verbally in English (compared with 36 percent of those who had arrived in the last year). They were also more likely to feel a great deal more involved in the local community, or in the activities of their ethnic group, than recent arrivals. However, written language skills for this group were still low, as were levels of income and employment rates, compared with national and New Deal Community levels and rates.

The sample was an extremely disadvantaged group - more disadvantaged than residents in even the most deprived areas in Britain. Housing was the main area that service clients felt needed improving in their lives. Feeling satisfied with various aspects of housing was the factor most strongly associated with 'good quality of life'.

Nine of the projects were described as 'integration' focused; one was 'settlement' focused. In the former, between 70 and 100 percent of clients were British citizens or had leave to remain.

Recommendations: The report notes that the services have been appreciated by clients and fulfil a need.

Scope: The study drew on face-to-face interviews with 404 clients of 10 (out of 63) projects. Research materials were translated into the main languages, and interviews were conducted in both English and other languages using 'mother tongue' interviewers and professional and household interviewers.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; social capital/networks; community participation; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health/wellbeing; housing; research methods: survey; research methods: interviews; refugees, including asylum seekers.

A7 Spencer, S. (2004). What works in the integration of refugees and other migrants? Review of the evidence base. Paper presented at the UK National Integration Conference 2004 What works locally? Balancing national and local priorities, Hilton Docklands Hotel, London 29-30 June. London: Home Office.

Research focus/aims: Report on a review of successful approaches to integration.

Participants: The review covered new migrants and refugees.

Key findings/outcomes: A holistic joined-up approach reflecting the reality of the integration experience is most likely to be effective. The review found some success in four areas: providing information to migrants; capacity building of migrant organisations; provision of language classes and language support; and provision of structured induction and ongoing support. Tensions diminish where host communities are prepared for new arrivals and staff in mainstream services are trained. Mentoring, befriending and hosting schemes can be beneficial but need to be ongoing.

Recommendations: The paper recommends that official data collection is improved to identify new migrants and refugees and that initiatives are evaluated and the results shared.

Scope: The paper is a brief summary of a larger review (Spencer 2006 [A17]).

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; social capital/networks; role of host country; language acquisition/ESOL; research methods: review; migrants, including refugees.

A8 Yu, S., Ouellet, E. and Warmington, A. (2007). 'Refugee integration in Canada: a survey of empirical evidence and existing services'. Refuge: Canada's Periodical on Refugees, 24(2): 17-34. 

Research focus/aims: This report presents information on refugees' economic and social integration in Canada and describes what integration services are available to them in order to identify knowledge and service gaps. Where possible, the paper distinguishes between government assisted refugees, privately sponsored refugees, landed in Canada refugees and refugee claimants.

Participants: Respondents to government statistical surveys.

Key findings/outcomes: The paper measures economic integration by employment rate and employment earnings at one and five years after receipt of permanent resident status. It found that refugees' employment rates and earnings improved with time but they continued to perform less well than skilled worker immigrants. At year one, privately sponsored refugees and landed in Canada refugees did better than the government assisted refugees, but by year five, all showed similar economic outcomes.

Social-cultural integration was measured by available indicators such as Canadian citizenship, general satisfaction level and familial networks (because no data was available on social engagement and political participation). Refugees were more likely than any other immigrant category to apply for and have received Canadian citizenship. Other information on sociocultural factors came from the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada Immigration Database (LSIC), which found that refugees in particular valued peace/absence of war and political/religious freedom. The authors suggest that very few studies focus on sociocultural integration patterns of refugees in Canada.

Recommendations: More research is needed on the causes of economic performance differential and on the patterns and causes of sociocultural integration. The authors also suggest that existing national scale databases such as IMDB and LSIC could be more fully used and studies replicated using regression analysis to see whether factors influencing immigrants' integration apply to refugees. Tailored employment and language programmes may be of benefit to government assisted refugees and privately sponsored refugees who have little official language skills. Refugees' heightened need for mental health and family counselling might need to be addressed. The spatial mismatch between service providers who might be concentrated in traditional settlement areas and refugees settling in suburban or non-urban locations should be reviewed.

Scope: Review of available sources of data - official statistics (Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada, Immigration Database) and literature review.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; social capital/networks; citizenship; civic/political participation; language acquisition/ESOL; economic integration; health/wellbeing host country/region: Canada; research methods: survey; migrants, including refugees.

Models and definitions of integration or social cohesion

A9 Commission on Integration and Cohesion. (2007). Themes, messages and challenges: a summary of key themes from the Commission for Cohesion and Integration Consultation. Wetherby, West Yorkshire: Communities and Local Government Publications.

Research focus/aims: A summary report of views expressed during community consultation.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The findings most relevant for refugees include the definitions of cohesion and integration and issues of measurement:

• Integration is the process by which new individuals and groups take their place within the majority community, achieving and being accorded their full rights as citizens. Integration can be full or partial and can take a long time, perhaps generations, to happen.
• Cohesive communities are ones that are able to exist together in a state of harmony and peaceful relationships, characterised by a climate of mutual understanding and respect.
• Absence of fear - a cohesive society is not one where some groups fear to use services or venues. If this is the case, it is a challenge for the whole society.
• Identity - cohesion implies a society in which differences of culture, race and faith are recognised and accommodated within an overall sense of identity. An integrated society does not depend upon assimilating these differences into a single identity.
• Quality of life - cohesion is a reflection of the overall quality of life for all those living in the local area.
• Methods for monitoring which groups are and are not accessing services are, by definition, sophisticated and require the efforts of local partnerships. Groups defined as hard to reach differ by service and change all the time - and the planning processes must respond to these differences.
• There is no single measure of cohesion or integration. Local population data, based on the Census, may be inadequate for planning services for mobile populations - with direct impacts on community cohesion. Local authorities often rely on a relatively crude (annual) process of quantification of community feelings about how well people appear to get on together as a working measure of cohesion and integration.

The paper also highlights discrimination in the workplace, the importance of visible difference and religious discrimination. It stresses the importance of common language, which it sees as a sine qua non of a cohesive society.

Existing residents often expect others to adapt, and assume that such norms are neutral, rather than systemically biased towards some groups and discriminatory towards others. Incoming groups may respond by forming separate communities and living parallel lives when faced with this kind of institutionalised discrimination.

To help them settle, new migrants need information in their own languages, access to English language classes, advice on welfare benefits, education, training, employment opportunities including assistance with job applications, housing and help with contacting existing support and social groups or setting up new ones. They need encouragement to get involved in their local communities and neighbourhoods and to access and engage in the democratic process. This places responsibility on public organisations to translate into languages used locally and make sure that services are accessible for new arrivals as well as existing residents. Research suggests that personal involvement in the process of welcoming migrants encourages positive attitudes to them.

Recommendations: The report includes many recommendations to help build cohesion: there needs to be social interaction and discussion between different communities at all levels of society; real relationships need to be formed and people need to feel as if they belong; greater levels of participation in community projects must be encouraged; and citizenship should allow for transnational identities and loyalties.

Scope: The work was commissioned by the Commission on Integration and Cohesion and reports on views that emerged during their consultation. The parties consulted are not listed. The findings are general rather than refugee-or place-specific, but many apply to refugees over the longer term as well as new settlers.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; social capital/networks; community participation; ethnic/cultural identity; religion; role of host country; social exclusion; language acquisition/ESOL; education/training; economic participation; host country/region: United Kingdom; research methods: interviews; migrants, including refugees.

A10 Dutch Council for Refugees. (2007). Dutch Council for Refugees Integration Barometer 2006: A study into the integration of refugees in the Netherlands. Rotterdam: Dutch Council for Refugees.

Research focus/aims: The Dutch Council for Refugees Integration Barometer 2006 builds on the 2005 version and aims to bring all the different aspects of integration together and show how these aspects are related to one another.

Participants: Individuals and groups of refugees who were interviewed by telephone, in person or as part of a group discussion and a representative sample of Dutch people aged 18 or over were surveyed.

Key findings/outcomes: The report presents findings from its statistical and qualitative sources under the headings: work; income; social integration; at home in the Netherlands and 'what Dutch people think'. The Dutch Council for Refugees concludes that, overall, there is cause for concern in a number of areas in the integration of refugees in the Netherlands. Specifically, refugees are disadvantaged in terms of work and income relative to both the indigenous Dutch population and other migrant groups. They are less likely to have a job and more likely to live on social security benefits. They are more likely to be on the minimum wage. A considerable proportion of those interviewed had financial problems and had to economise on food and clothing and could often not afford bus fares or to take trips to see family located in other parts of the Netherlands. Some said the lack of money meant they could not fully participate in society.

The social integration of refugees seemed to be developing positively, with interviewees engaged in society through their children's school or voluntary work. They had social contacts with both Dutch people in the Netherlands and abroad, and felt free and accepted. The author suggested that the loneliness experienced by half the refugee respondents was a result of the family and way of life that they had left behind. Close relationships with people from their own country were a source of support and did not indicate a lack of integration; rather, they helped refugees to feel at home in the Netherlands.

Work was shown to be important to both refugees' income position and to their social integration (improving both social contacts and self-esteem).

A number of obstacles were identified including: the lengthy asylum procedure, during which time refugees cannot work or study and places them at a huge disadvantage in the labour market; the desperate need to earn money quickly, which forces them to take low-skilled jobs and prevents them from learning Dutch; and age is also important both in the labour market and in terms of making friends later in life.

Recommendations: As a result of their findings, the Dutch Council for Refugees concludes that a specific approach is needed to ensure the successful integration of refugees. The council suggests that quicker decisions about refugee and residency status would help. Other recommendations include increasing the likelihood that refugees begin their integration without large debt - abolishing the high fees payable for a residence permit and for family reunification would help this. They also suggest creating work and voluntary work placement opportunities, offering practical job hunting help and mediation at a personal and organisational level to stimulate interactions between refugees and Dutch people.

Scope: Three research methods were used: supplementary analyses of data from existing representative surveys including a survey of new ethnic groups carried out by the Social and Cultural Planning Office and the Immigration Panel of Statistics Netherlands; refugees were interviewed by telephone (155 refugees with a residence permit) by personal in-depth interviews (25 refugees) or as members of either a male or female group discussion; and, finally, a representative survey of 529 Dutch people was conducted.

Country research undertaken in: Netherlands.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; social capital/networks; community participation; transnationalism/diaspora; role of host country; economic participation; host country/region: Netherlands; research methods: survey; research method: interviews; refugees.

A11 Hedetoft, U. (2007). 'Social cohesion and ethnic diversity: are they compatible?'. Metropolis World Bulletin, 7(September), 5-6.

Research focus/aims: The paper discusses current debates on social cohesion and ethnic diversity.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The paper distinguishes between social cohesion and a sense of belonging. The former is a collective phenomenon; the latter refers to an individual's sense of attachment. The author identifies three notions of what successful adaptation means: a normative notion, a functional notion and a pragmatic (minimalist) notion. The normative notion demands that immigrants totally accept and internalise the host country's norms and values in the public sphere, at work and in their private lives. The functional notion emphasises the importance of active citizenship and civic participation as the benchmark of adaptation. The pragmatic notion focuses on immigrants finding employment and being self-sufficient. The author believes that all three discourses suggest that neither cohesion nor a sense of belonging are essential to national functionality or prosperity; nor are diversity and multiethnicity the menace to states they have been made out to be.

Recommendations: None included.

Scope: The paper briefly presents a theoretical debate.

Country research undertaken in: Denmark.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; ethnic/cultural identity; citizenship; civic/political participation; economic participation; host country/region: Denmark; research methods: discussion paper; migrants, including refugees.

A12 Hooghe, M., Reeskens, T. and Stolle, D. (2007). 'Diversity, multiculturalism and social cohesion: trust and ethnocentrism in European societies'. In K. Banting, T. Courchene and F. Seidle (Eds.), The art of the state - belonging? diversity, recognition and shared citizenship in Canada (Vol. III, pp.387-410). Montreal: The Institute of Research on Public Policy.

Research focus/aims: The paper investigates how rising ethnic and racial diversity influences social cohesion in Western democracies and how integration policies might shape this relationship.

Participants: Respondents to the European Social Survey^[1] conducted in 21 European countries during 2002 and 2003.

Key findings/outcomes: The authors found that respondents who lived in countries where foreigners were given the most extensive voting rights and where these were established at an early stage of rising immigration were the most trusting. Other policy initiatives, such as naturalisation policies or broader multicultural policies, did not influence social cohesion in significant ways. There did not seem to be any relation between various integration policies and the level of ethnocentrism in the population. The authors suggest that voting rights work particularly well for establishing social cohesion because they are universal egalitarian policies, implemented to put other citizens on an equal footing with majority groups.

In Europe, the research did not confirm that rising ethnic diversity or even the influx rate of foreign citizens had any significant detrimental effect on social cohesion, as measured by people's feelings of trust and views on immigration.

Recommendations: No recommendations are included.

Scope: This is a high-level paper that draws on the European Social Survey to compare policies and levels of ethnocentrism across numerous European countries.

Country research undertaken in: Europe.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; civic/political participation; host country/region: Europe; research methods: survey; research methods: review; migrants, including refugees.

A13 Ives, N. (2007). 'More than a 'good back': looking for integration in refugee resettlement'. Refuge: Canada's Periodical on Refugees, 24(2), 54-63.

Research focus/aims: This article describes the resettlement experience of 24 Bosnian refugees in the United States and explores how this relates to the US policy context. The term 'good back' refers to hard work.

Participants: 24 Bosnian refugees in the United States.

Key findings/outcomes: In addition to hard work, participants outlined four key areas in which they needed to participate in order to achieve integration: acculturation and culture including language and religion; employment (and education); social support; and citizenship and advocacy. Information is provided about how many of these 24 refugees fell into different categories (for example, fluency in English, employment situation, uptake of US citizenship etc).

Concerning acculturation and culture, participants in this study had a strong desire to regain what had been lost in Bosnia, both materially and psychologically. This involved creating a space in the new culture and forming a new identity - one which retained their previous sense of self (before life was disrupted) alongside their new sense of self as acquired in the United States. They missed the Bosnian identity as it existed before the war where ethnoreligious groups lived on common territory. All agreed on the importance of learning English for long-term economic and social wellbeing. Some refugees voiced need to improve English, spoke negatively about their accents, struggled with written English and felt that their level of proficiency inhibited job mobility. Some were dissatisfied with English language classes for the following reasons: people of different ages, abilities and purposes were grouped together; repetition of content as newcomers joined the class; and classes were not at a level that would enable movement from manual work into positions where they could use their skill sets. Because of 9/11, some of the Muslim refugees felt defensive about their faith and differentiated themselves from Muslims from Afghanistan or Iraq.

Employment and education - 'Self-sufficiency within 90 days' is the most influential directive in the US resettlement programme. Dissatisfactions included long hours and low-wage, low-skill jobs, needing to get multiple jobs to survive financially, jobs unrelated to qualifications (the only person who was able to use their higher qualifications did so with help from a Bosnian friend working in the same field) and lack of health insurance for themselves or family members.

Social support - A central process of survival in resettlement is recreating social networks, and participants acknowledged centrality of the help they had received from Bosnian family and community members and congregational sponsorship.

Citizenship and advocacy - There was a general reluctance to get actively involved in politics relating to American or Bosnian issues. Political participation was conceptualised as citizenship, a belief in the importance of advocacy and keeping informed about (but not actively participating in) politics and current events in Bosnia.

Recommendations: Implications for policy and advocacy included:

• a range of agencies are involved in providing resettlement services, provision of services may vary between areas
• funding of settlement services agencies is not continuous and may mean that demand for services overwhelms supply
• the emphasis on employment overlooks the gatekeeper role played by language
• a credible national body is needed to evaluate refugee qualifications on arrival
• a policy shift is required to move refugees from being considered policy 'objects' to being 'active agents' and resettlement being considered a two-way rather than a one-way process.

Scope: The primary source of information was in-depth interviews with 24 Bosnian refugees, using a semi-structured, open-ended interview schedules. This was triangulated with information gathered from interviews undertaken with key informants from local resettlement agencies, participant observation at key sites and events, and review and analysis of historical, contextual and statistical documents.

Country research undertaken in: United States.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; social capital/networks; citizenship; civic/political participation; religion; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Bosnia; research methods: interviews; refugees.

A14 Joppke, C. (2007). 'Immigrants and civic integration in Western Europe'. In K. Banting, T. Courchene and F. Seidle (Eds.). The art of the state - belonging? diversity, recognition and shared citizenship in Canada (Vol. III, pp. 321-350). Montreal: The Institute of Research on Public Policy.

Research focus/aims: The paper explores convergence of integration policies in Western Europe.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The author comments on the European Union's common basic principles of integration. The first is that integration is a two-way process, which he sees as unrealistic in the first instance. The balance of movement depends to some extent on how much the state intervenes to protect migrants' own language and culture or support them to find work. The author argues that emphasis on cultural recognition in the EU has decreased while the focus on socioeconomic and civic integration has increased. Enrolment in civics and language courses has become obligatory in some countries. The counterpoint to this has been an emphasis on anti-discrimination laws and policies. He concludes that the trend has shifted the burden of change so that it lies first with the migrant and later with society.

Recommendations: No recommendations are included.

Scope: Civic integration policies in the Netherlands, France, Germany and Britain are compared to inform the author's thesis that the national models of immigration no longer exist in Europe.

Country research undertaken in: France.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; language maintenance; ethnic/cultural identity; civic/political participation; language acquisition/ESOL; host country/region: European Union; research methods: discussion paper; migrants, including refugees.

A15 Noll, G. and van Selm, J. (2003). 'Rediscovering resettlement'. Migration Policy Institute Insight, December 2003 (3), 1-31.

Research focus/aims: The paper seeks to understand different approaches to refugee resettlement in Europe and the United States.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The word 'resettlement' is associated with different actions and policies in Europe and the United States. The paper explores models of resettlement in each continent and notes the different challenges they face. In Europe, the main challenges are:

• the high numbers of asylum seekers
• the mixed nature of that inflow
• the rise of right-wing parties, or at least parties that play on xenophobic fears
• the nature of the welfare states
• the high level of unemployment among the existing population.

In the United States, the main challenge comes from the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of 9/11 and the ensuing War on Terror. In addition, in the United States, there appears to be a strong desire to see economic integration, while the focus in Europe seems to be more on linguistic and cultural integration. In the United States, refugee integration in the workforce assists in a general public perception of resettled refugees as hard working and genuine pursuers of the American Dream as well as true participants in the community. Existing programmes in European Union countries do not openly focus on integration potential; they generally focus on very vulnerable cases and people with high needs. In Europe, integration plans allow several years for refugees to find employment and focus on finding the right work rather than any job.

Recommendations: The authors recommend that:

• European states should reconsider their underlying aversion to adding criteria beyond refugee protection need to the selection process
• European states should accommodate refugees who do not face extraordinary challenges or special needs in broader programmes across the EU
• the US should focus more strongly on the protection needs of refugees (both vulnerable cases and other refugees)
• refugees should be registered at the start of a resettlement programme. This would provide a useful database of information on resettlement.

Scope: A background paper was the basis for group discussions in Washington and Brussels. These were followed by a series of interviews with key policy officials.

Country research undertaken in: Europe and United States.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; economic participation; host country/region: European Union; host country/region: United States; research methods: discussion paper; research methods: interviews; refugees.

A16 Rudiger, A. (2006). 'Integration of new migrants: community relations'. In S. Spencer (Ed.), Refugees and other new migrants: a review of the evidence on successful approaches to integration, (pp. 4-21). Oxford: Centre on Migration, Policy and Society (COMPAS).

Research focus/aims: Review of literature on social cohesion.

Participants: Migrants and refugees in UK less than five years.

Key findings/outcomes: Identifies a lack of qualitative information on the impact of new migration. What there is reveals tensions in community relations, particularly in certain geographical areas. The degree of anxiety is closely linked to economic deprivation. Other contributing factors are pre-existing tensions, media reporting, lack of information and consultation about the reception of newcomers, little experience of diversity and inadequate public services. Policy interventions to foster good community relations include developing responsive public services, building the capacity of new communities, changing attitudes and preventing conflicts, supporting mentoring and volunteering, developing communities and encouraging civic participation.

Recommendations: The paper recommends policy interventions that tackle fears of change and remove barriers to participation. A joined-up and coherent mechanism for mainstreaming cross-cutting migration issues is required. Public bodies need to provide adequate services and information to new and established communities and devise robust systems to tackle racial harassment and to counter negative media reporting.

Scope: A literature review that uses the Home Office's indicators of integration (Ager and Strang 2004b [A20]), the guide to good race relations (European Council on Refugees and Exiles 2002)^[2] and the social capital framework (Performance and Innovation Unit 2002)^[3] as a guide to assessing community cohesion.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; social capital/networks; community participation; social exclusion; role of host country; economic participation; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: review; migrants, including refugees.

A17 Spencer, S. (2006). 'Executive summary'. In S. Spencer (Ed.), Refugees and other new migrants: a review of the evidence on successful approaches to integration, (pp. viii-xv.): Oxford: Centre on Migration, Policy and Society (COMPAS).

Research focus/aims: This executive summary outlines the approach taken by the Centre on Migration, Policy and Society (COMPAS) to reviewing the evidence base on the integration of refugees and other recent migrants. The review addressed four questions in relation to five facets of integration: employment; housing; community relations; health and education:

• What are the current integration outcomes for refugees and other recent migrants?
• What are the key factors that affect those outcomes?
• What is known about the effectiveness of different types of intervention undertaken to improve outcomes?
• What is the quality of the evidence base and how could it be improved?

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: This work reviewed Ager and Strang's Indicators of integration (2004b [A20]), which was then in preparation, although broader or alternative measures were used in instances where data was unavailable. Evidence is limited because many studies focus on more broadly defined populations. The author concludes that refugees and other new migrants have less favourable outcomes on measures used to assess integration than the population of UK as a whole.

Experiences are diverse and are linked to individual characteristics, country of origin, geographical location and other factors. Key factors are lack of language skills and/or recognised qualifications, mobility, migrants' lack of knowledge of the system, generic services that are insufficient to meet migrants' needs, hostile public attitudes and legal barriers to integration associated with immigration status. Interventions that promote integration include provision of information to newcomers before and after arrival, language tuition and language support services, structured assessment, induction and ongoing support and capacity building with migrant community organisations.

Recommendations: As well as interventions targeted at migrants, the report recommends interventions focused on employers, agencies and the public and improving mainstream services rather than supporting ad hoc grant funded initiatives. It suggests a number of interventions to build bridges between individuals, groups and institutions.

Scope: The review focuses on English language literature on the experiences of refugees and new migrants in the UK, although comparable evidence from Europe and elsewhere was included where relevant. The areas covered include employment, housing, community relations, health and education.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; education; economic participation; civic/political participation; housing; social capital/networks; host country/region: United Kingdom; research methods: review; migrants, including refugees.

A18 Zetter, R., Griffiths, D., Sigona, N. and Hauser, M. (2002). Survey on policy and practice related to refugee integration. Oxford: European Commission.

Research focus/aims: The objectives of this report were to analyse and evaluate legislation and practice relating to integration policies in EU member states (including the effectiveness of policies as well as considering the historical factors that informed the legislation of particular states.

Participants: Interviewees, including refugees and others from a range of organisations, institutions or professional fields that work with or have an interest in refugees in Italy, Germany and UK (supplementing information gathered through a review of 12 countries).

Key findings/outcomes: This report includes concepts and typologies of integration as well as indicators of integration and harmonisation. It provides detailed case studies of policy and practice in Germany, Italy and the UK and reviews practices in 12 other countries.

The key findings of the study were as follows:

• Each nation had distinctive and unique models of citizenship and nationhood, with each model holding different implications for concepts of refugee integration and associated policy development.
• Case studies illustrated the challenge to accomplish a harmonised framework of policies and strategies to integrate refugees.
• Only Germany, of the three case study countries, has adopted an explicit national strategy to coordinate programmes for integration (through their Immigration Act 2002). This is consistent with an assimilation approach that stresses both functional and sociocultural integration.
• There is only limited consensus over the meaning of integration. Variables such as the means and form of integration, the degree of independence afforded to refugees, the timing of integration measures and eligibility for support mediate the process in significant ways.
• European Union member states rely heavily on measurable factors and output indicators related to functional integration, for example, employment take-up, levels of language proficiency and uptake of skills training programmes. This inevitably highlights bureaucratic procedures and instrumental means to integration.
• Cultural indicators of integration such as levels of community development, ethnic cohesion and identity, and intergenerational measures of assimilation are far less evident. These determine the effectiveness and success of refugee integration, yet they are largely neglected.

Recommendations: The paper argues that a powerful case can be made for mainstreaming refugees in all aspects of social policy and provision in which diversity is managed. This will include refugees and other marginalised groups in the social and economic life of the host country and avoid the creation of ghettos.

Scope: Combines a desk study, qualitative methodology and comparative analysis.

Country research undertaken in: Europe.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; ethnic/cultural identity; citizenship; education/training; economic participation; social exclusion; host country/region: European Union; refugees; research methods: review.

Indicators of integration or social cohesion

A19 Ager, A. and Strang, A. (2004a). The experience of integration: a qualitative study of refugee integration in the local communities of Pollokshaws and Islington. Home Office Online Report No. 55/04. London: Home Office.

Research focus/aims: This study formed part of the Indicators of Integration project. It aimed to study local understandings of the experience of integration.

Participants: Refugees and non-refugees in communities in Glasgow and London.

Key findings/outcomes: Within the communities studied, both refugees and non-refugees saw relationships as the core mechanism for securing integration. Some interviewees accepted absence of conflict as an indication of a well-integrated community. Others aspired to more active mixing of groups, acceptance of diversity and difference, friendliness, participation in shared activities and equality of access to services. For some, a sense of belonging meant having close ties with strong family members, committed friendships within and across the groups making up the community and a sense of shared values. Other important issues were equality of rights and respect, safety and security, English language capability and broader issues of cultural understanding. Factors such as housing, employment and education were considered to be both markers of effective integration and a means to that end.

Recommendations: The findings contributed to the development of the Indicators of Integration framework.

Scope: The study was conducted in two communities with a resettling refugee population: Pollokshaws in Glasgow and Islington in London. It is based on 29 interviews with refugees and 33 interviews with a cross-section of the non-refugee community.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; citizenship; social capital/networks; community participation; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; housing; research methods: interviews; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; refugees, including asylum seekers.

A20 Ager, A. and Strang, A. (2004b). Indicators of integration: final report. Development and Practice Report No 28. London: Home Office.

Research focus/aims: This report presents the final outputs of the Indicators of Integration study. The study had three aims: first, to investigate different understandings of 'integration' as a concept; second, to establish a framework for a common understanding of 'integration' that can be used by those working in the field of refugee integration in the UK; and third, to design the framework for use by local projects and policy makers to assist them with the planning and evaluation of services for refugees.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The framework is structured around ten key domains that the evidence suggests are of central importance to the integration of refugees. The paper suggests a number of indicators within each of these ten domains - usually around ten - as a means of assessing integration with respect to that specific domain.

The ten domains are grouped under the following four headings:

• Means and markers are key areas for the participation of refugees in the life of communities. They serve as markers of integration because they show evidence of achieving or accessing things that are valued within the community. They also serve as means to those ends, in that they will often help achieve other things relevant to integration. There are four domains under this heading: employment, housing, education and health. Grouped together, these domains represent major areas of attainment that are widely recognised as critical factors in the integration process. Achievement in each of these four domains should not be seen purely as an 'outcome' of integration; they also clearly serve as 'means' to that end as well.
• Social connection involves the different social relationships and networks that help towards integration. Those connections may be with people who share your own experiences and values through ethnicity, religion or country of origin. These connections are defined as 'bonds' within communities. Connections with other groups are seen as 'bridges' between communities. Finally, connections that help to access services and be fully involved as a citizen are defined as 'links to services and government'. All serve to connect an individual or group into the wider community. There are three domains within the framework under the heading 'social connections'. They are:
• social bonds (connections within a community defined by, for example, ethnic, national or religious identity)
• social bridges (with members of other communities)
• social links (with institutions, including local and central government services).

Taken together, these domains stress the importance of relationships to the understanding of the integration process.

• Facilitators are the key skills, knowledge and circumstances that help people to be active, engaged and secure within communities. There are two domains within the framework under the heading 'facilitators': 'language and cultural knowledge' and 'safety and stability'. These represent key facilitating factors for the process of integration.
• Foundation refers to the principles that define what you have a right to expect from the state and from other members of your communities and what is expected of you. These principles include the rights that are given to individuals and the expectations and obligations of citizenship. There is one domain within the framework under the heading 'foundation' - rights and citizenship. This represents the basis upon which expectations and obligations for the process of integration are established.

In its current form, the integration framework does not seek to identify the many relationships between domains, nor does it attempt to suggest a clear 'process' of integration. This is because there are such complex interlinkages between all of the proposed domains that it is particularly important to stress that the way the domains are presented should not be taken to suggest a 'hierarchy'. It is therefore not proposed that any domain is more important than any other, or that integration should happen in a particular order (i.e. that you achieve employment first, then greater social bonds).

Recommendations: Different indicators are proposed for the levels of policy and of practice. Both at a policy and practice level it is unlikely that all indicators listed will be relevant or feasible as measures. At a policy level, however, core indicators are recommended for general use, as a means to develop the potential for comparison across settings and across time. All indicators need to be interpreted with care, taking into consideration context and the relevance of potential comparisons.

Scope: The study used available literature, qualitative interviews and others sources of data to identify the key factors that appear to contribute to the process of integration for refugees in the UK. The study also aimed to suggest a set of indicators that could be used to assess how far refugee integration for both individuals and communities has been achieved.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; citizenship; social capital/networks; religion; economic participation; health/wellbeing; housing; host country/region: United Kingdom; research methods: review; research methods: interviews; migrants, including refugees.

A21 Ager, A. and Strang, A. (2008). 'Understanding integration: a conceptual framework'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 21(2), 166-191.

Research focus/aims: The paper elaborates on the framework developed by the authors to measure successful integration.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The paper describes the development of the indicator framework (Ager and Strang (2004b [A20]) and expands on the relevance of the indicators chosen. For example, it notes that, with housing, discussions seldom focused on physical aspects of housing. Instead, they centred on the social and cultural aspects of housing including safety and security and the importance of continuity of relationships associated with being settled in an area. With the means and markers of integration - employment, education, health and housing - the authors raise the issue of what constitutes successful integration across these domains. They question, if one is integrating 'within' a society, what are the standards and expectations of that society that provide some basis for cohesion?

The concepts of citizenship and rights can also be interpreted in different ways. Articulating refugee rights defines the foundation of integration policy to which governments are accountable. Rights may include human dignity, equality, freedom of cultural choice, justice, security and independence. Indicators need to reflect the normative context (foundation) for understanding integration.

The paper uses research findings to support the distinction between 'social bonds' and 'social bridges', noting that, for refugees, involvement with one's own ethnic group influenced 'quality of life' independently of involvement with the local community. The underlying principle for integration at a community level was that people would participate equally and without prejudice in the activities and pastimes available to it.

One of the key facilitators of integration is language and cultural knowledge. The authors recognise the widely accepted need for refugees to be able to communicate in the host country's language. They also note that the issue of language competence is a challenge for receiving communities, especially providers of essential services such as healthcare.

Recommendations: Governments need to articulate policy on nationhood and citizenship, and thus the rights accorded to refugees. The authors propose more local studies of integration, particularly with a longitudinal focus, to explore causal pathways in securing resources and connection.

Scope: This is a discussion paper that expands on earlier work by the same authors.

Country research undertaken in: Not applicable.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; citizenship; community participation; social capital/networks; language acquisition/ESOL; health/wellbeing; housing; research methods: discussion paper; migrants, including refugees.

A22 Berg, B. (1997). 'An action-research approach to the understanding of integration'. In Measurement and indicators of integration, (pp. 130-136). Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Research focus/aims: This is one of a series of expert papers discussing measurement and indicators of integration in Europe. It focuses on the conditions that underpin measures of integration in Norway.

Participants: 28 Norwegian municipalities, refugees and officials.

Key findings/outcomes: The project sought to understand not only the results of policies but the conditions for those results - that is, the how and why. The authors conclude that integration work has to be:

• anchored in the local political and administrative system - there must be a common attitude on the modalities of how to implement integration policy
• based on co-operation between professional groups and organisational boundaries
• based on the participation of the immigrant groups themselves
• organised in a way that makes it possible to choose flexibility and differentiation based on the needs of each individual immigrant.

Recommendations: The authors recommend that municipalities should be able to choose different models, methods and organisational practices for their work. Due to context-specific differences, it might not be feasible to set one national policy. Instead, integration work must be: anchored in the local political and administrative system; based on co-operation between the specific groups involved, including the immigrants; and, when possible, flexible enough to incorporate the needs of individual migrants.

Scope: The research on which this paper is based studied the relationship between the objectives of immigration policy, the measures used and the practical results. The authors used a mix of qualitative approaches to explore the validity of objective indicators.

Country research undertaken in: Norway.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; host country/region: Norway; research methods: interviews; migrants, including refugees.

A23 Butcher, A. and Hall, L. (2007). Immigration and social cohesion: from policy goal to reality. Paper presented at the ESOL Home Tutors' Conference, 19 May 2007.

Research focus/aims: This paper identifies current conceptual debates about social cohesion and immigration as well as key elements that can be used to measure social cohesion.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The author defines social cohesion as follows:

• Cohesive societies have high levels of participation, respect and trust among their members.
• Social cohesion is concerned with issues of inclusion and equal opportunities of access.
• All groups have a sense of belonging, participation, inclusion, recognition and legitimacy.
• High levels of social cohesion are associated with healthier populations, safer communities, safer communities and employment opportunities.

While research suggests that employment has the greatest impact on settlement, models also need to take into account indicators of inclusion, recognition and legitimacy. The author argues that notions of social cohesion are often only applied to new settler communities, without recognising that host communities also need to adapt.

Recommendations: The author stresses that it is not enough to develop indicators of social cohesion. We also need the resources and the political and public will to act on those indicators, particularly where they require change.

Scope: This is largely a reflective piece discussing the relationship between developing indicators and actually achieving social cohesion.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; community participation; health/wellbeing; language acquisition/ESOL; host country/region: New Zealand; research methods: review; migrants, including refugees.

A24 Castles, S., Korac, M., Vasta, E. and Vertovec, S. (2002). Integration: mapping the field. Home Office Online Report No. 29/03. Oxford: University of Oxford Centre for Migration and Policy Research and Refugee Studies Centre.

Research focus/aims: A review of British research on immigrants and refugees conducted between 1996-2001 predominantly within academic and NGO sectors.

Participants: Focuses on immigrants and refugees in the UK but excludes asylum seekers.

Key findings/outcomes: The authors discuss the concept of integration, conditioning factors, possible indicators and questions of data and methodology. They agree that there is no consensus on what 'integration' really means or how it can be measured. Terms used in the literature include: integration, assimilation, segmented assimilation, structural or functional assimilation, acculturation, adaptation, incorporation, inclusion, exclusion, insertion, settlement, citizenship and race relations approach. Useful analytical factors may include: conditions of exit, categories of entrant, legal status, characteristics of entrant, characteristics of ethnic community and conditions of receiving context. The authors suggest 34 possible indicators in the areas of: education, training and employment; social integration; health; legal integration, political integration and overall integration. They note that the main research topics for refugees in the UK during the 1990s were sociocultural, health, education and training, the labour market and discrimination. Less research was done in areas such as housing, family and children, women and gender, justice and legal issues, and welfare and social matters. Experts agree that there is a serious lack of data and other factual knowledge about processes and factors of refugee integration.

Recommendations: The authors call for more research on the concepts of 'immigration' and 'refugees', on the integration process of long-standing communities and their role in the process of integration of new refugees. More work needs to be done about experiences of refugees regarding integration and on developing conceptually grounded indicators of integration.

Scope: The report is based on a literature review, a bibliography of published research, development of a current research list and interviews with key academic researchers, NGO representatives and community sector workers. It covers the 1990s with a focus on the last five years of the decade

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; civic/political participation; social exclusion; education/training; economic participation; health/wellbeing; housing; women; children/youth; host country/region: United Kingdom; research methods: review; research methods: interviews; migrants, including refugees.

A25 Chrissanthaki, T. and Ostby, L. (1997). 'International migration statistics'. In Measurement and indicators of integration, (pp. 68-76). Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Research focus/aims: This is one of a series of expert papers discussing measurement and indicators of integration in Europe. It focuses on Eurostat flows and data.

Participants: EU member states.

Key findings/outcomes: Findings relating to refugees:

• Not all countries include asylum seekers in immigration and emigration statistics. Invited or resettled refugees are counted but cannot, with some exceptions, be identified as such.
• Statistical definitions of refugees and asylum seekers differ from country to country and are not comparable.

Recommendations: Nationality may cease to be useful in countries with high naturalisation rates. Target groups need to be defined broadly and include the victims of social and racial discrimination, regardless of current citizenship or place of birth.

Scope: This is one of a collection of brief papers prepared for a conference to discuss indicators and measurement of integration. It covers data collection and measurement issues.

Country research undertaken in: Europe.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; citizenship; host country/region: European Union; migrants, including refugees.

A26 Coussey, M. and Christensen, E. (1997). 'Indicators of integration'. In Measurement and indicators of integration, (pp.15-22). Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Research focus/aims: This is one of a series of expert papers discussing measurement and indicators of integration in Europe.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The authors suggest that areas to be measured should include: the labour market; housing and social services; education; participation in political processes and in decision making; mortality, fertility and demographic changes; and judicial indicators.

Recommendations: As above.

Scope: This is one of a collection of brief papers prepared for a conference to discuss indicators and measurement of integration.

Country research undertaken in: Europe.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; civic/political participation; citizenship; education/training; economic participation; health/wellbeing; housing; research methods: discussion paper; migrants, including refugees.

A27 Ekholm, E. (1997). 'Experience in measuring refugees' integration in Finland'. In Measurement and indicators of integration, (pp. 168-72). Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Research focus/aims: This is one of a series of expert papers discussing measurement and indicators of integration in Europe. It is based on a survey on refugees' living conditions and wellbeing in Finland.

Participants: Iranian, Kurdish, Vietnamese and Somali refugees and municipal refugee workers.

Key findings/outcomes: Only a few refugees attained full participation in the economic, social and political life of Finland. The greatest obstacle to integration was unemployment. Many refugees felt isolated and lonely. While half of those interviewed had Finnish friends, a third had experienced xenophobia and racism. Internal integration within their own group was hampered by political and religious controversies, events in the home country and the small size of communities in Finland. Refugees wanted more access to employment and language classes and more information to overcome prejudice among Finns. Religion was an important coping strategy for Somalis.

Recommendations: No recommendations included.

Scope: The survey on which this paper is based was intended to provide a basis for planning and development and an assessment of how successful integration measures had been. Data was gathered through a postal questionnaire to refugee workers and interviews with 100 refugees.

Country research undertaken in: Finland.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; religion; civic/political participation; social capital/networks; community participation; role of host country; social exclusion; economic participation; host country/region: Finland; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: survey; research methods: interviews; refugees.

A28 Home Office. (2005). Integration matters: a national strategy for refugee integration. London: Home Office.

Research focus/aims: National strategy for integrating refugees.

Participants: Refugees who have been recognised and those who have been granted discretionary leave or humanitarian protection.

Key findings/outcomes: Defines integration as the process that takes place when refugees are empowered to achieve their full potential as members of British society, to contribute to the community and to become fully able to exercise the rights and responsibilities they share with other residents. The report identifies eight measures of integration - English language attainment, volunteering, contact with community organisations, take-up of British citizenship, housing standards, reporting of racial, cultural or religious harassment, and access to education.

The strategy identifies the need for: refugees and service providers to be able to communicate effectively; easy access to up-to-date information about services; stability of service delivery; comprehensive and accurate data and regional and local planning. The paper describes the way support is organised at the national, regional and local level and includes the role of the voluntary, community and private sectors. It stresses the need for co-ordination and identifies funding programmes.

Recommendations: No specific recommendations are included.

Scope: A strategy paper prepared after consultation, focusing on services for recognised refugees.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; citizenship; social capital/networks; role of host country; social exclusion; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; host country/region: United Kingdom; research methods: discussion paper; refugees, including asylum seekers.

A29 Institute for Social and Economic Development (ISED). (2007). Report of the Integration Working Group. Report submitted to the Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR). Washington: Department of Health and Human Services.

Research focus/aims: This report describes the findings and the processes undertaken by the Integration Working Group (IWG). The IWG was formed by the United States Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR) to review and provide limited analysis of the process of integration of refugee populations into local populations throughout the United States.

Participants: Integration Working Group members. Each of the nine members had personal or professional experience with integration and/or resettlement issues. They worked in state or local refugee programmes, organisations that conduct or fund research on integration, mutual assistance associations or voluntary agencies.

Key findings/outcomes: The report describes the process and factors considered by the IWG who then developed a consensus working definition of integration:

Integration is a dynamic, multidirectional process in which newcomers and the receiving communities intentionally work together, based on a shared commitment to tolerance and justice, to create a secure, welcoming, vibrant and cohesive society.

The group agreed on the following indicators of integration: health/wellbeing; language; economic opportunity; civic values/participation/engagement; education; housing; social connections; and belonging/safety.

They found that the literature addresses pathways that promote integration and suggested that the pathways interact dynamically, each with the power to reinforce or weaken progress in other areas. Refugees and the receiving communities can work together through the strategic pathways to provide resources and opportunities to leverage the human capital immigrants bring. Pathways can also serve as a means of assessing whether integration is taking place successfully. The pathways identified most commonly in the literature include: legal status; English language training for adults and children; credential recognition and assistance with meeting professional and trade licensing requirements; higher education opportunities; youth training and development services; civic participation training and opportunities for involvement in the wider community; healthcare and wellbeing; adequate and affordable housing; community-wide planning; equal treatment and opportunity; social and cultural interaction; personal safety and stability; and cultural understanding.

Recommendations: The IWG made a number of short-term and longer-term recommendations on how the ORR could best encourage the integration of refugees. These included a focus on integration in the areas of employment, English language acquisition, health, housing and civic engagement. Other recommendations related to sharing best practices and learning, suggestions for how ORR Grants and programmes should be resourced and administered, and suggestions for greater collaboration with non-federal entities.

Scope: The report was based on the findings of a literature review, which was then used to develop an annotated bibliography and framework for understanding integration in the United States. The IWG deliberated on the findings of the literature and drew also on their own experience.

Country research undertaken in: United States.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; civic/political participation; citizenship; social capital/networks; role of host country; social exclusion; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; health/wellbeing; housing; research methods: review; host country/region: United States; refugees.

A30 Interdepartmental Working Group on the Integration of Refugees in Ireland. (1999). Integration: a two-way process. Report to the Minister of Justice, Equality and Law Reform by the Interdepartmental Working Group on the Integration of Refugees in Ireland, Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform, Dublin.

Research focus/aims: This paper reports on the findings of the Irish government's Interdepartmental Working Group (formed in December 1998). This group was asked to develop a strategy for the government on ways of responding positively to the needs of persons granted refugee status or leave to remain in Ireland.

Participants: None, although the working group considered findings of a previous survey undertaken of Bosnian and Vietnamese refugees.

Key findings/outcomes: The working group agreed that integration must be seen as a two-way process that places certain duties and obligations on refugees and on the host society at both national and community level in order to create an environment in the host society that welcomes refugees as people who have something to contribute to society. They also stated that the emphasis of integration policy should be on supporting initiatives that enable the preservation of the ethnic, cultural and religious identity of the individual and at the same time remove barriers that affect refugees' ability to access mainstream services.

The Group then defined integration as:

... integration means the ability to participate to the extent that a person wishes in all of the major components of society, without having to relinquish his or her own cultural identity.

The paper describes services available to refugees in Ireland and discusses the role of Irish society in promoting integration under four headings: acceptance by Irish society; measures taken to combat racism and discrimination in Ireland; combating racism in Europe; and developing a tolerant inclusive society in the future. The latter requires leadership by politicians, development of services, intercultural education in schools and positive contributions by NGOs, the media and public awareness initiatives.

The working group found that, while a variety of measures had been taken by the state to facilitate the integration of refugees in Ireland, there had only been two reports that provided solid information on the evaluation of these measures. One report based on a survey of Bosnian and Vietnamese communities found that, by 1997, integration initiatives for programme refugees had been only partially successful in terms of numbers in full-time employment, development of language skills, participation in education and training and social interaction.

The second report based on a survey of Bosnian refugee women found that a large proportion of respondents were not satisfied with their ability to communicate in the English language, that there was an extremely low proportion participating in education or working outside the home and that a significant percentage did not have regular contact with Irish people in their area.

The working group identified that the key practical issues for integration are language skills, employment, training, recognition of skills and qualifications, education, accessing mainstream services, health issues, accommodation, naturalisation and citizenship, and family reunification.

The report sets out the parameters of a possible integration policy, including a call for a coordinated approach to integration.

Recommendations: The four recommendations of this paper are:

• to identify an organisational structure for co-ordinating and implementing integration policy
• to raise public awareness
• to make mainstream services more accessible
• to conduct research.

Scope: The working group drew on international reports and on submissions from interested organisations in preparing the report.

Country research undertaken in: Ireland.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; citizenship; ethnic/cultural identity; role of host country; social capital/networks; social exclusion; education/training; health/wellbeing; housing; women; host country/region: Ireland; research methods: review; refugees.

A31 Matikainen, J. (2003). 'The Finnish Red Cross in refugee resettlement: developing the integration timeline as a tool for integration in the Kotopolku Project'. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 4(2), 273-295.

Research focus/aims: The article describes the Finnish Red Cross's Kotopolku (Pathways to Integration) Project and, in particular, the development of a settlement counselling tool - the integration timeline.

Participants: Employees in the Finnish Pathways to Integration programme. The majority of employees came to Finland as refugees.

Key findings/outcomes: The integration timeline is a practical tool to analyse a person's own experience and history in the integration process. It is best used after two to three years residence. In developing the timeline, each person is free to express whatever trends and changes he or she believes are important, whether physical, social or psychological. The refugee draws the timeline together with an interviewer.

In a pilot study among immigrant employees of the Red Cross integration project, integration timelines ranged from vague to highly detailed, and charts demonstrated integration over a time span of six to 12 years.

The influence of invisible factors, such as events happening for family members and friends in other countries, was important.

The integration timeline has mainly been used with individual clients. Plans are in place to adapt the model for use with families. The researchers recognise that the timeline will need to allow for variation in the experiences of family members and that separation of family members in refugee situations will delay the integration process.

The tool has the potential to be used with a whole community, for example, by collaborating with a refugee organisation and focusing on a particular group's integration. It would be important to ensure that all views are represented: women, men, children, the elderly, the educated and the uneducated.

Recommendations: The author suggests expanding the timeline to consider data from the period before the refugee's arrival in the host country in order to remind refugees of their strengths and coping strategies.

Scope: The paper describes an ongoing development process for developing and using an integration timeline to help refugees understand and demonstrate skills in analysing and controlling their own lives, set realistic goals and create a personal integration strategy. It includes examples of two integration timelines.

Country research undertaken in: Finland.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; transnationalism/diaspora; health/wellbeing; women; children/youth; older refugees; host country/region: Finland; research methods: ethnographic; refugees.

A32 Niessen, J., Huddleston, T., Citron, L., Geddes, A. and Jacobs, D. (2007). Migrant Integration Policy Index. Brussels: British Council and Migration Policy Group.

Research focus/aims: The project aims to develop a common measure of integration policy in Europe.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The Migration Integration Policy Index (MIPEX) aims to measure policies to integrate migrants and covers the six policy areas the authors suggest shape a migrant's journey to full citizenship: labour market access; family reunion; long-term residence; political participation; access to nationality (i.e. citizenship); and anti-discrimination.

A detailed list of the 140 indicators that fall under each of these headings is provided in Appendix C. Best practice for each policy indicator is set at the highest European standard, drawn from Council of Europe Conventions or European Community Directives. Where these are only minimum standards, the index uses European-wide policy recommendations. The index enables users to compare their country's performance against best practice and to measure change over time.

Before providing details of the findings for 28 European countries, the authors provide composites of the best and worst policy practices in the six areas, along with their observations of the key differences between policies. These examples have been written from the perspective of a migrant.

Recommendations: No recommendations included.

Scope: The indicator framework has been developed and applied to migrants in the European context. This application of MIPEX generally excludes refugees (along with asylum seekers, irregular migrants and other EU citizens with either immigrant origins or who have moved from one EU country to another). However, some mention is made of the application of policies to refugees in country profiles.

Country research undertaken in: Europe.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; citizenship; civic/political participation; social exclusion; economic participation; host country/region: Europe; migrants, including refugees.

A33 Peace, R., Spoonley, P., Butcher, A. and O'Neill, D. (2005). Immigration and social cohesion: developing an indicator framework for measuring the impact of settlement policies in New Zealand. Working Paper 01/05. Wellington: Centre for Social Research and Evaluation, Ministry of Social Development.

Research focus/aims: The working paper sets out some preliminary thinking about the purpose and feasibility of building a coherent indicator framework to monitor the impact of settlement policies on social cohesion.

Participants: This paper discusses indicators relating to social cohesion.

Key findings/outcomes: The authors outline the following:

• Current conceptual debates about social cohesion and immigration that have relevance to the New Zealand context, including discussion of shared values, participation and inclusion, systemic and individual barriers, spatial separation and exclusion and the role of social capital. They refer to New Zealand's Immigration Settlement Strategy and the importance of five elements: belonging, inclusion, participation, recognition and legitimacy.
• Key elements for an indicator framework are set out in tabular form for the migrant/refugee community and host communities. The suggested indicators relate to the five elements plus a broad range of demographic factors. This framework is provided in Appendix C.
• Data gaps in the New Zealand stocktake of indicator measures.
• Policy implications and issues of building an indicator framework.
• Directions for future conceptual and measurement work, including systematic review of proposed indicators and alignment with other frameworks.

The discussion identifies systemic and individual barriers faced by immigrants, including indifference and discrimination.

Recommendations: The paper highlights the amount of work to be done and the costs involved in developing a comprehensive indicator framework. The authors note the need to align the indicator work with that currently being undertaken in other government sectors. They also recommend that approaches and mechanisms be explored to ensure greater co-ordination of services to immigrants and refugees.

Scope: As a working paper, the document is useful as a basis for discussion. It presents a good summary of international debates and other initiatives to develop indicators of social cohesion.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; language maintenance; civic/political participation; community participation; role of host country; social capital/networks; social exclusion; dispersal policies; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; housing; health/wellbeing; host country/region: New Zealand; research methods: discussion paper; migrants, including refugees.

A34 Phillimore, J. and Goodson, L. (2008). 'Making a place in the global city: the relevance of indicators of integration'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 21(3), 305-325.

Research focus/aims: This paper aims to explore the usefulness of the functional indicators proposed by Ager and Strang (2004b) [A20] as a measure of integration and the ways in which indicators might be shaped to help policy makers work towards promoting integration in a multicultural global city (such as Birmingham).

Participants: Refugees in Birmingham (UK) who have arrived since the early 1990s.

Key findings/outcomes: Before presenting their findings, these authors provide an overview of the history of refugee movements and policies in the United Kingdom. They then discuss integration as a concept and present Ager and Strang's (2004b) [A20] integration framework and the indicators set out in the Home Office publication Integration matters (2005) [A28]. Findings concerned the availability and usefulness of data.

The authors confirmed the importance of employment domain and stated that it is vital to economic advancement and that it helps to establish social roles, develop language, cultural understanding, social connection and a sense of security. Ager and Strang (2004b) [A20] suggested comparing the unemployment rates, earnings, underemployment and self-employment rates of refugees with those of the general population as a gauge of integration. The authors identify current difficulties in assess employment rates and earnings in relation to the remainder of the population (due to a lack of a refugee marker in the UK General Household Survey, Labour Force Survey and Census). However, the authors compared their own findings with those of the UK General Household Survey and found that:

• the rate of unemployment for refugees was more than 60 percent, which was more than ten times the national average
• the earnings of all refugees was below the regional average and in most cases half this figure
• of those refugees employed in their country of origin, 60 percent were employed in skilled, semi-professional roles; however, of those employed in the United Kingdom, all were working in unskilled work
• no information was collected on self-employment.

Ager and Strang (2004b) [A20] suggested that the proportion of refugees in secure housing, the proportion in areas targeted for renewal and housing occupation/overcrowding rates compared to the general population could be used as indicators of housing integration. The authors suggest that housing is a fundamental need and that, symbolically, finding 'a home' marks the end of a journey and that refugees considered finding permanent housing to be very important. The study found high levels of transience and the majority of refugees living in temporary accommodation. There was no overall data on numbers of refugees living in renewal areas or on the extent of overcrowding. Through a mapping exercise, the authors found that large numbers of refugees were living in the housing market renewal pathfinder area. and interviews suggested that it was common for refugees to be sleeping on family and friends' floors.

The authors found that refugees viewed education as the third most important factor in terms of their own integration. If learning English language is included, then it becomes the most important factor to aid settlement. They found that local education authorities and colleges in Birmingham did not use a refugee marker and only collect basic ethnicity information on students, which makes it difficult to measure against the two indicators recommended by Ager and Strang (2004b) [A20] on the achievements of refugee children and number of refugees completing tertiary qualifications. The authors' findings suggested that the attainment levels of refugee children were low, that nine percent of refugees had attained qualifications and the majority of these were for ESOL achievements, that a lack of resources and/or a shortage of places were factors involved in refugees being unable to access vocational training and that high drop-out rates were related to homelessness.

The authors found that health was mainly considered to be an issue by those with some kind of health problem and that those that experienced a health problem or who had to care for sick relatives were excluded from employment and education. Their findings suggested that refugees have special needs, particularly in relation to mental health issues. Again, a lack of refugee markers made it difficult to use Ager and Strang's (2004b) [A20] suggested indicators of comparing the mortality and morbidity of refugees in comparison with the general population.

Recommendations: The authors make a number of recommendations about the data that is required to assess the functional indicators of employment, housing, education and health. They suggest that it is important to collect data at a sufficiently fine level to be able to identify, within ethnic communities, those groups who are doing well and those who are being excluded so that action can be taken to identify and target hard to reach groups. They also recommend a consideration of issues by age, ethnicity and gender.

Scope: This paper draws from the data of four studies of the experiences, aspirations and needs of refugees across the whole or parts of Birmingham, undertaken during 2004 and 2005. Data included 1,770 responses to household surveys; 93 in-depth interviews with refugees, policy makers, colleges and service providers; and a range of secondary data analysis. Refugee subjects were selected on the basis of ethnic background.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health/wellbeing; housing; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: survey; research methods: interviews; refugees.

A35 Spoonley, P., Peace, R., Chapman, J. and Young, G. (Unpublished draft document). Ethnic diversity in New Zealand: outcomes and indicators. Report for Office of Ethnic Affairs. Albany, New Zealand: College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Massey University.

Research focus/aims: Identifying possible indicators associated with the development of strong sustainable communities in the context of ethnic diversity.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The report focuses on indicators that measure ethnic relations in particular communities and wider society. The report describes various definitions of ethnicity and diversity in New Zealand and internationally, and the emergence of 'diversity' and ethnicity in policy agendas. It does not specifically refer to refugees. The report reviews a wide range of indicator frameworks and data issues, including indicators to assess migrant integration. These need to:

• include social, economic and political indicators
• be able to be subjected to a meaningful level of desegregation between and within relevant groups
• be collected over a sufficient period of time to allow trends to be identified.

Recommendations: The report proposes an indicator framework with 84 indicators covering communities and participation, cities and regions, institutions and demographics and recommends the development of robust data systems to provide empirical data.

Scope: The report reconceptualises and builds on the indicator framework developed by Peace, Spoonley, Butcher and O'Neill in 2005 [A33].

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; language maintenance; civic/political participation; community participation; role of host country; social capital/networks; social exclusion; dispersal policies; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; housing; health/wellbeing; host country/region: New Zealand; research methods: discussion paper; migrants, including refugees.

A36 Werth, M., Stevens, W. and Delfs, S. (1997). 'Measurement and indicators of integration: an introduction'. In Measurement and indicators of integration, (pp. 5-14). Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Research focus/aims: The paper introduces a series of expert papers discussing measurement and indicators of integration in Europe.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: Integration needs to take into account members of the host community as well as migrants. It is important to define who belongs to the target group of integration policies and what is meant by 'integration'. Indicators need to be compared over time and to other sets of data. It appears extremely difficult to see prospects for a nationwide measurement of the integration of all migrants living in one country.

Recommendations: None included.

Scope: This is an introduction to a collection of brief papers prepared for a conference to discuss indicators and measurement of integration.

Country research undertaken in: Europe.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; research methods: discussion paper; migrants, including refugees.

A37 New Zealand Immigration Service. (2004). Refugee voices: a journey towards resettlement. Wellington: New Zealand Immigration Service.

Research focus/aims: The objective of this research was to describe refugees' resettlement experiences.

Participants: 398 refugees in New Zealand. This includes quota refugees, individuals who had claimed asylum within New Zealand and were subsequently granted refugee status and people of refugee background who had entered New Zealand through standard family-sponsored immigration policies. 209 of these refugees were categorised as 'recently arrived' and were interviewed after six months in New Zealand, with some interviewed again at two years. A second group of 'established refugees' consisted of quota refugees who had been in New Zealand for five years.

Key findings/outcomes: Findings were presented under these headings:

• Background: including sections on refugee backgrounds, prior information about New Zealand and arrival experiences.
• Settlement: including sections on housing, getting help, family reunification and health.
• Training, work and income: including sections on learning English, adult education, labour force and other activities, financial support and income.
• Social integration: including sections on children and teenagers, social networks, discrimination, learning about New Zealand culture and maintenance of own culture, and settling in New Zealand.

Throughout the report, findings are presented for the newly arrived and for the established refugee groups. Overall, this report found that there was a similarity in responses and issues between the recently arrived and established groups. It reinforced what is already well known - that ability with English is crucial to all aspects of resettlement - and subsequently, those with less English ability need more help. The facilitation of English language learning, tailored to the needs of the individual, is vital. Being able to work is vital to refugee wellbeing, but refugees face many barriers to the workforce and need much assistance with this process.

Recommendations: The executive summary of the report summarises issues arising from the research including:

• the importance of acknowledging and responding to refugee diversity (one size or type of service delivery will not meet all needs
• refugees not having an understanding of available services or their entitlements
• that entering the labour market is the greatest challenge
• a need for more help with accessing English language training and suitable housing
• that the provision of health services and schooling is working well
• that support agencies are offering a good service to refugees.

Scope: 498 face-to-face interviews, carried out in the participants' own language, and a series of focus groups. Focus group members included men, women, teenagers, Burmese refugees settling in Nelson and refugee service providers.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: studies of settlement; ethnic/cultural identity; transnationalism/diaspora; social capital/networks; role of host country; social exclusion; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health/wellbeing; housing; children/youth; host country/region: New Zealand; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: interviews; refugees.

A38 Flanagan, J. (2007). Dropped from the moon: the settlement experiences of refugee communities in Tasmania. Tasmania: Social Action and Research Centre, Anglicare.

Research focus/aims: This report looks at the experiences of refugee communities in Tasmania against the Australian Department of Immigration and Citizenship's criteria for the successful settlement of new entrants, which has, as a broad goal, the full economic and social participation of new entrants. The project's aims were to:

• provide information on factors that have assisted and hindered settlement for refugees from their own perspective
• provide information on new entrants' perception of how effectively mainstream and settlement services are meeting the needs of refugee-initiated communities
• identify the appropriateness of existing service design and identify services gaps
• develop recommendations for policy directions for government and non-government services to better meet the needs of newly arrived refugees across a range of services.

Participants: 78 refugees from Sudan, Ethiopia, Sierra Leone, Burundi, Rwanda, Iran, Afghanistan, and the former Yugoslavia.

Key findings/outcomes: The report begins with a discussion of the policy framework for the settlement of humanitarian entrants in Tasmania and a review of the social system for these new entrants. It then looks at the literature on key areas of the refugee experience in Australia (and includes summaries of the literature relating to refugees and poverty, housing, health and education issues, employment, regional settlement and family reunion). Detailed findings from the current research are then presented in line with the Department of Immigration and Citizenship's indicators under the broad headings of social participation and wellbeing (including the indicators English proficiency, satisfaction with life in Australia, and intentions towards Australian citizenship), economic participation and wellbeing (including the indicators labour force participation, employment details and occupational status in relation to previous occupational status and use of highest qualifications, level and source of income), housing details (including tenure type, accessibility and affordability) and physical wellbeing.

Recommendations: This report makes 34 recommendations, many for Commonwealth Ministers, and includes the following areas: the adequacy of settlement services; a greater provision of detail about destination and likely living conditions through the Australian Cultural Orientation Programme; ensuring that services in transit are reliably provided (including the initial greeting at the airport on arrival); better addressing of housing needs and a longer period of support delivered through the Integrated Humanitarian Settlement Strategy services; better transitional support for young people leaving secondary schools in the independent school system; addressing transport disadvantage; and specialist employment services. Other recommendations concerned health, level and source of income, cost of living issues, family reunion, racism and the Adult Migrant English Programme, or were related to those proposing further Special Humanitarian Program entrants and the level of support provided to entrants that have arrived.

Scope: Interviews with service providers and policy makers around Tasmania; 19 focus groups held in three locations with refugee participants, aged 18 and over, who were members of refugee-initiated communities and who had arrived in Australia in the last ten years; and in-depth interviews with three people from refugee-initiated communities.

Country research undertaken in: Tasmania, Australia.

Keywords: studies of settlement; social capital/networks; transnationalism/diaspora; social exclusion; dispersal policies; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health/wellbeing; housing; research methods: interviews; host country/region: Australia; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; refugees.

A39 George, U. and Tsang, A. (1998). 'Newcomers to Canada from former Yugoslavia'. International Social Work, 43(3), 381-393.

Research focus/aims: The authors explore settlement and adaptation issues among refugees and migrants from former Yugoslavian countries and the implications for policy and service delivery.

Participants: 227 individuals from former Yugoslavia - most (87 percent) were Citizenship and Immigration Canada (CIC) designated refugees. The remaining 13 percent were independent or family-class immigrants. Just under a third of these individuals (30 percent) had been in Canada for six months or less, 29 percent for between six and 12 months and 42 percent for between 21 and 27 months.

Key findings/outcomes: A quarter had moved to a new town or city since arriving, mostly for employment opportunities. The average length of time to find employment was about one year. Over half the employed participants felt that they were not in a job that matched their qualifications and experience. Most who had difficulty speaking English on arrival were enrolled in English language classes. All but two rated their health as excellent or good. Employment-related and personal problems created the most stress. Overall, the longer newcomers stayed, the more isolated they felt and the more likely they were to want to leave the country. Around half reported that they had a weak support network or none at all.

Recommendations: The authors recommend improved premigration preparation, improved systems to recognise qualifications and better information for migrants generally.

Scope: Based on telephone and face-to-face interviews and follow-up interviews with 227 refugees, of whom 42 percent had been in Canada around two years, while the remainder were more recent immigrants.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: studies of settlement; social capital/networks; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health/wellbeing; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: Former Yugoslavia; research methods: survey; refugees, including migrants.

A40 Grogan, P. (2008). Does a rising tide lift all boats? Refugee resettlement, integration and New Zealand's Settlement Strategy. Wellington: Fulbright New Zealand.

Research focus/aims: This research takes a comparative look at refugee resettlement in the United States and New Zealand within the context of each nation's social structure and the differing understanding of the role of government. It examines how refugees in New Zealand are served through the recently introduced Settlement Support New Zealand (SSNZ) programme. This programme has the goal of ensuring that migrants, refugees and their families access the information and services they need to participate productively and independently in society. Three elements were reviewed:

• The degree to which local settlement support organisations incorporated the refugee serving agencies and the specific needs of refugees into the local strategy.
• Whether or not services provided were accessible to refugees given diverse linguistic needs.
• Determination of whether refugees were using services available through SSNZ networks and if their use was different from other migrant groups.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The first chapters of this report (Chapters 1-4) provide background and analytical material on refugees, international resettlement programmes, and refugee selection and resettlement processes within New Zealand and the United States. Later chapters describe implementation of the SSNZ programme and how it interacts with refugees (Chapter 5) and identify considerations for the development of integration policies supportive of refugees (Chapter 6).

The author's analysis found that access to support and to SSNZ services was a concern particularly for non-English speaking refugees. Only a limited amount of written material is available in refugee languages, and workshops and orientations seldom offer interpreters. Overall, refugees were under-represented in uptake of SSNZ services, and those that used the services were from four communities, generally where SSNZ offices were co-located with other refugee serving agencies.

The author also identifies the varying approaches taken by different countries to turn principles of integration into government policy and differentiates prescriptive approaches (for example, learning a language and completing culture classes in specified timeframes) from less formal approaches (where tools to integration are offered but not enforced). She suggests that, whether prescriptive or less formal, most integration programmes include some or all of the following elements: vision; statement of rights and responsibilities; economic wellbeing; civics education; information and referral; interpreters and translation; and language and education.

The author suggests that that there are ways in which refugees will benefit from national integration strategies (that may be designed for all migrants), including through:

• the availability of government resources aimed at supporting language learning and appropriate employment
• measures for improving the responsiveness of mainstream services, for ensuring equal rights and for enforcing prohibition of discrimination based on national origin or language capabilities
• government acknowledgement of immigrants as important contributors to society.

Negative impacts for refugees of national integration strategies might include situations where refugees fail to reach required benchmarks within set timeframes and, as a result, suffer the withholding of services or benefits. The author suggests that national integration strategies hold promise for refugees if they are implemented in a way that improves access and support to refugees, but they also have the potential to become an impediment to freedom if they impose excessive additional requirements on refugees (in the context of their lives).

Recommendations: This paper suggests several 'considerations' to make SSNZ more accessible and useful to refugees. These include greater focus, co-ordination and tailoring of the services most often sought by refugees and migrants (i.e. those relating to employment, English language training and immigration) and stronger systems for referral between the Refugee and Migrant Service (now called Refugee Services) and SSNZ to ensure refugees' needs are met. Refugees with longer-term needs may tend to be those with lower levels of English language ability.

Further considerations are suggested to ensure refugees are supported in their integration efforts, including:

• Government leadership in supporting integration
• treating integration as more than language acquisition through taking a comprehensive approach to integration including identification of universal rights and responsibilities, access to economic opportunity, health and education, support for language acquisition, pathways to citizenship, responsive mainstream services and the communication of preferred cultural norms
• the identification of services gaps for response by all levels of government
• defining both priorities and limits of integration programmes - the author suggests that New Zealand's experience shows that difficulties exist in the absence of priorities in that local integration efforts either establish their own priorities or respond to those who seek services (who may or may not be those in most need of assistance)
• addressing interpretation and translation needs
• managing the effect of integration programmes on existing networks
• making participation in integration programmes voluntary.

Scope: This report provides a comparative analysis of resettlement and integration policies in New Zealand and the United States and a description and analysis of New Zealand's Settlement Support New Zealand initiative.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: studies of settlement; integration/social cohesion; civic/political participation; citizenship; role of host country; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health/wellbeing; host country/region: United States; host country/region: New Zealand; research methods: review; migrants, including refugees.

A41 Hickman, M., Crowley, H. and Mai, N. (2008). Immigration and social cohesion in the UK: the rhythms and realities of everyday life. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.

Research focus/aims: This research draws on original material gathered from six UK sites with different experiences of migration and postindustrial transformations and comprising different populations of long-term residents and new immigrants. Between them, they illustrate various contexts of social cohesion in England, Northern Ireland and Scotland.

Participants: Residents from a wide range of ethnic groups, including some refugees, in two low-income communities.

Key findings/outcomes: Most of the report is a detailed description of the six communities. The main findings relating to refugees are summarised below.

• Strategies of social cohesion among the Somali community were driven by the commitment of parents to ensuring that their children acquired English language skills and to establishing connective relations of belonging within their own communities. While the parents often had poor or minimal English, they were concerned that their children should be both literate and able to do well educationally.
• The arrival of asylum seekers, economic migrants and refugees into deprived communities introduced new patterns of entitlement (to housing and welfare) and a different skills base (economically active skilled and semi-skilled workers) into areas where social citizenship and economic capacity were limited by the effects of long-term unemployment and reduced welfare provision.
• Refugees and asylum seekers coming into a community can enhance its resource base and change dynamics for the better in terms of increasing the expectations of marginalised communities for social support. Immigration can also place enormous strains on communities that identify as homogeneous and feel unable to provide capacities to involve newcomers. When these capacities are already limited by deprivation, the combined effect seemingly brings social cohesion issues into crisis. When recent immigration is held responsible for this, relations of cohesion are further undermined. In communities where multiculturalism and diversity are part of the texture of daily life, new arrivals pose much less of an issue.
• New arrivals (particularly refugees and asylum seekers) experience violence and stigmatisation from settled communities based on racialised understandings of the right to access subsidised housing and income support.

Other findings:

• Most people felt that social cohesion was about negotiating the right balance in expressing difference and unity in local areas, rather than expecting complete consensus on values and priorities.
• Some majority ethnic long-term residents experienced government concerns with immigration as prioritising the interests of private business, while neglecting their specific needs.
• The arrival of new immigrants could highlight the resilience of some communities or the profound disconnections between people, groups and institutions in others.
• Many long-term residents and new arrivals valued the UK for being multiethnic and multicultural.
• Communities that thought of a locality as belonging to them in particular were more likely to blame new arrivals for problems that often already existed. Communities that thought of a locality as belonging to everyone tended to be more open to new arrivals.
• When the arrival of new immigrants brought about improvements in infrastructure support and opportunities for new arrivals and long-term residents, these shared circumstances were welcomed and valued by all.

Recommendations: The researchers conclude that the limited opportunities and multiple deprivations of the long-term settled population in parts of UK towns and cities undermine social cohesion. To ensure cohesion, the impact of social and economic changes needs to be addressed, as well as how people relate to each other.

Scope: Data was collected through interviews and observations in six sites across the UK. The sample was divided into three categories: long-term settled majority ethnic, long-term settled minority ethnic and new immigrants. In each area, the researchers conducted 15 in-depth semi-structured interviews with local key respondents and 40 biographical, life narrative interviews with local residents in each site.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: studies of settlement; integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; social capital/networks; community participation; social exclusion; dispersal policies; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; housing; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities research methods: interviews; research methods: ethnographic; migrants, including refugees.

A42 Hudson, M., Phillips, J., Ray, K. and Barnes, H. (2007). Social cohesion in diverse communities. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.

Research focus/aims: The report sought to develop a better understanding of social interactions and relationships within and between groups in ethnically diverse neighbourhoods.

Participants: Residents from a wide range of ethnic groups, including some refugees, in two low-income communities.

Key findings/outcomes: Most of the report is a detailed description of the two communities. The main findings are brought together in the conclusion:

• Patterns of interaction across, as well as tensions between, different ethnic groups are shaped in large measure by material resources.
• Established residents felt that refugees and asylum seekers who did not 'contribute' economically were 'first in the queue' for state resources.
• There may be high levels of transience among higher-income residents as well as among migrant and refugee communities.
• Local service providers had moved away from culturally specific provision for different ethnic communities towards more mixed provision.
• Somali residents gave weight to the importance of ethnic-specific community organisations reflecting patterns of disadvantage among Somalis, inadequate access to local services, the expression of cultural and ethnic identities and struggles over local political representation.
• Community organisations were engaged in work that forged connections across different groups at a grass-roots level.
• Policy responses have often focused on minimising residential segregation between different ethnic groups but spatial proximity does not necessarily result in social interaction across cultural diversity.
• Social interaction is influenced by factors such as age, gender, life course and migration histories as well as ethnicity.
• Somali interactions are strongly influenced by gender.
• People are attached to multiple and overlapping communities based on ties of place, culture, ethnicity, religion or race. An identification with a whole neighbourhood as a community is relevant only in certain contexts.

Recommendations: The report recommends more targeted interventions at the local level to help Somali populations in particular. Inward and outward migration of asylum seekers and refugee communities should be better planned. Encouraging social contact between groups can contribute to the collective 'working through' of problems. It is important to work with young people and with older people to address age-related divisions.

Scope: Data was collected through discussion groups, in-depth interviews with residents and interviews with key informants in two ethnically diverse neighbourhoods in Manchester and London. Only some participants were refugees or asylum seekers.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: studies of settlement; integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; religion; social capital/networks; community participation; civic/political participation; social exclusion; dispersal policies; children/youth; older refugees; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; host country/region: United Kingdom; refugees, including asylum seekers; research methods: interviews.

A43 Jayaweera, H. and Choudhury, T. (2008). Immigration, faith and cohesion. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.

Research focus/aims: This research explores factors that contribute to or undermine community cohesion in urban areas. It compares the experiences of Muslim residents in three areas in the United Kingdom with those of non-Muslim residents.

Participants: Muslim and non-Muslim residents in three communities in Britain. While most of the Muslims are recent migrants, only some are refugees.

Key findings/outcomes: The findings below are those most likely to be relevant to refugees and are drawn from the conclusion to the report.

Recent migrants in the study were more likely than established residents to be unemployed or to have undesirable, low paid, insecure jobs. Skilled migrants were not always accessing jobs that matched their qualifications. Racial discrimination was reported by minority ethnic residents regardless of length of residence or birth in the UK. Overall, nearly 50 percent of minority ethnic interviewees said they had experienced unfair treatment because of their 'colour or ethnicity'.

Choice of locality

For Muslims, family ties and the presence of people with similar ethnic or religious backgrounds were important reasons for moving to and valuing the locality in which they lived. Recent migrants and established Muslim residents were more likely than others to say that they derived a sense of security from the presence of people sharing their religion, ethnicity or country of origin in their locality.

Support and friendship networks

Muslims demonstrated both higher levels of 'bonding' social capital (interaction with people sharing their religion and/or country of origin) and 'bridging' capital (interaction with people from other backgrounds) than non-Muslim new migrants. The latter occurred despite the interviewees living in localities with relatively high religious and ethnic concentration.

Participation

There were low levels of participation in local organisations, including ethnic and religious organisations, particularly among recent migrants. Two-thirds of all those interviewed were not actively involved in any organisation. The ethnic/religious mix of neighbourhoods did not impact on involvement in organisations. Recent migrants cited lack of time, insufficient English, feeling unwelcome or insecure immigration status as reasons for non-participation. For some established Muslims, a perceived lack of relevance of local organisations to their lives, and negative attitudes within their community to participation of women in organisations were factors.

Values and belonging

Most migrants, including Muslims, felt there was little conflict in belonging to both their countries of origin and to Britain. For established Muslims born outside the UK, 60 percent said that the people most important to them were in Britain. Information and visits to their country of origin remained important to them, but with very limited evidence of financial, business or political involvement abroad. Transnational identification and activity seems to lessen with increasing length of residence in the UK.

Significantly, those with the most transnational attachment and involvement were also most likely to be employed, financially stable, have voted in the general election and to meet more people of different ethnicity and religion and in more places (although least likely to participate in mixed organisations). Continuing transnational attachment does not need to be a barrier to economic and social integration in the United Kingdom.

A sense of belonging in Britain for all migrants - recent and established - was, however, significantly affected by their perception of their lack of acceptance in the UK. Interviewees cited experience of discrimination, verbal abuse and less overt communication that their presence was unwelcome as reinforcing a sense that they did not belong. The evidence suggests that it is this perception and experience of being unwelcome rather than of attachment to their country of origin that diminishes a sense of belonging in British society.

Recommendations: The report includes a range of suggestions for policy development.

Scope: The report draws on semi-structured interviews with 319 Muslim and non-Muslim recent migrants and established residents, as well as 32 interviews with local and national policy makers and service providers in London, Birmingham and Bradford.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: studies of settlement; integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; religion; transnationalism/diaspora; social capital/networks; community participation; social exclusion; language acquisition/ESOL; women; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: interviews; migrants, including refugees.

A44 Nontapattamadul, K. (2000). 'The integration of Laotian refugees in Calgary'. Abstract only. Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 61(5), 2040-A.

Research focus/aims: Investigates the long-term settlement of Laotian refugees in Canada.

Participants: Ten Laotian refugees who came to Canada from 1975 to 1980.

Key findings/outcomes: The research participants had lived in Calgary from 12 to 19 years. They fared well economically and were satisfied with working and living in Calgary. Having freedom was the main reason why they felt satisfied with living in Calgary. Other reasons were the quality of life, the high standard of sanitation, high technology, a better educational system and local peoples' acceptance of ethnic diversity. The participants had high ethnic identification. The multicultural environment in Calgary was positively supportive for them to continue their cultural values, which they preserved very well, but because of their weak relationship with the dominant society at large, they did not integrate well into the Calgarian society. They could not find a balance between their ethnic identity and a positive relationship to Calgarian society. Improving English skills and upgrading their employment status would enhance their integration by giving them more opportunities to interact with the local community.

Recommendations: None stated in abstract.

Scope: Very small study of five couples (ten people) who were interviewed independently.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: studies of settlement; integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; language maintenance; social capital/networks; role of host country; social exclusion; education/training; economic participation; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: Laos; research methods: interviews; refugees.

A45 Rutter, J., Cooley, L., Reynolds, S. and Sheldon, R. (2007). From refugee to citizen: 'Standing on my own two feet'. London: Refugee Support, Metropolitan Support Trust.

Research focus/aims: Documenting the lives of refugees who came to the UK during the last 50 years.

Participants: Thirty refugees from 15 different countries who arrived in the UK between 1956 and 2006.

Key findings/outcomes: The report begins with an outline of refugee migration during the last 50 years and analyses UK policy responses to these population movements. The authors conclude that refugees experienced greater labour market integration if their dispersal was employment-led rather than housing-led. Three factors appear important in determining refugee integration and the development of a sense of belonging: the reception climate - media, community and institutional welcome; secure immigration status; and early access to decent permanent housing.

The authors identified six facets of integration:

• Psychosocial contentment: fulfilment, a sense of security, the absence of anxiety and feelings of welcome and belonging.
• Interaction between members of a household and the wider society.
• Participation in civil society institutions, public institutions, the workplace and in political life.
• Equality of access, equality of treatment and progress towards equality of outcome.
• Respect for the rule of law and the liberal values that underpin society.
• The possession of social, civil and political rights.

They conclude that integration needs to be conceptualised as occurring at a household as well as an individual level. Social contentment should comprise a facet of the process and outcome of integration.

Recommendations: The report makes recommendations in these areas:

• Integration policy: government and refugee organisations should acknowledge the familial and inter-generational aspects of integration; central and local government as well as refugee organisations need to better communicate the two-way nature of integration to the whole population.
• Adult education and training: a review of current ESOL provision and future ESOL needs; contingency funding for students to access ESOL.
• Employment: government, trade unions, employers and migrant and equality organisations should collaborate to tackle widespread prejudice about the employability of refugees and work together to increase the number of work experience placements for refugees.
• Children's services: improved funding for language services for children, improved intensive induction programmes for young refugees, increased support and guidance on post-16 education of young refugees.
• Housing: research into hidden homelessness among refugee communities; guidance to ensure that building design promotes social cohesion; consideration to the role of public space in promoting social cohesion.
• Local social cohesion and community safety: refugees need to be better able to seek redress for racially aggravated crime; in-service professional development for teachers, youth workers and other key personnel to develop skills in teaching controversial issues such as conflict resolution and migration and consider how to better communicate pro-refugee and pro-diversity messages.
• Volunteering and active citizenship: government and refugee organisations should work together to develop national volunteering strategies for refugees; undertake more research on volunteering activity among refugees.

Scope: The study used a life history approach complemented by visual techniques such as mapping, timelines, charts and spider diagrams to collect data about identity.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; studies of settlement; citizenship; civic/political participation; social capital/networks; role of host country; social exclusion; dispersal policies; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; housing; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: ethnographic; refugees.

A46 Valtonen, K. (1999). The integration of refugees in Finland in the 1990s. Helsinki: Ministry of Labour.

Research focus/aims: This research aimed to:

• explore the 'human question' of how those with a refugee background encounter and cope with the demands of adaptation and the tasks and challenges of integration in their 'new home society'
• include the perspectives of 'resettling persons' (giving voice to those whose opinions and experience are generally not heard)
• examine how resettlement options are moderating and influencing the conditions and terms of integration (a 'societal perspective').

Participants: Refugee communities, including Vietnamese, Cambodian, Kurds (including Iraqi Kurds), Iraqis (of Arabic origins) and Somali.

Key findings/outcomes:

• Despite a high level of independent job-seeking activity and considerable increase of human capital (language and acquired language skills), there was no improvement in employment situation since the previous study and, in the view of the author, amounted to labour market exclusion (high level and duration of unemployment).
• Young people with considerable education and vocational training acquired in Finland experience faced obstacles before the job interview stage - a gap of confidence between employer and job seeker.
• This gap can be bridged through persons in the community or individuals with official standing whose recommendations carry weight with the employer.
• If an employer has a positive experience with employing an immigrant, this may pave the way for others (chain employment).
• Professional refugees seem to be at greater disadvantage than those with less education and training.
• Arrangements for remedial education and mother tongue instruction for school-age children varied between resettlement municipalities, and this constitutes a risk for second generation refugees.
• Social interaction and mutual assistance circles were flourishing but relations with wider society suffer because of lack of access to the opportunities provided by being in employment.
• As resettlement proceeds, cultural adaptation tasks can greatly exhaust family relations and can reach critical levels before interventions are made.
• Distinct religious, political and cultural orientations are seen as structures that resettling individuals use and rely on to give meaning to present life reality. In one sense, they are coping strategies with religious, political or cultural bias that provide continuity from the past to present reality.

Recommendations:

• There is an urgent need for employment equity promoting measures to redress disproportionate levels of unemployment in resettling refugee communities.
• There is a need to develop the lateral mobility options of professional refugees, and this would involve more accurate assessment of their human capital.
• Both remedial education and mother tongue instruction for school-age children need to be firmly established within school curricula and could utilise the resources of professional educators within the resettling populations.
• The public service provision arena should be opened up to include a wider range of service providers including culturally competent persons who could provide services to their own communities to help prevent adverse impacts of adaptation on refugee families.

More detailed recommendations were provided under the following headings: information and database; employment and participation in the labour market; mother tongue studies and basic education; university education; language skill and interpreting services; social relations; cultural adaptation; the activities of community organisations; and organisation of resettlement and integration services.

Scope: This extensive study was the second of a government-sponsored research project on refugee integration. It focused on refugees in Finland, their communities and their integration into Finnish society and was conducted from the beginning of September 1998 to the end of August 1999. Based on three main data sources - interviews with resettling refugees (individuals, family interviews and focus groups), interviews with research informants and statistical data.

Country research undertaken in: Finland.

Keywords: studies of settlement; integration/social cohesion; religion; ethnic/cultural identity; language maintenance; social capital/networks; role of host country; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; children/youth; host country/region: Finland; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: interviews; research methods: survey; refugees.

Defining refugees

A47 Feller, E. (2005). 'Refugees are not migrants'. Refugee Survey Quarterly, 24(4), 27-35.

Research focus/aims: The paper focuses on the distinction between refugees and migrants.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The paper discusses three propositions: refugees are not migrants; it is dangerous and detrimental to refugees to confuse the two groups; a refugee situation may develop into part of a broader migratory movement. The author argues that, when the line between migrant and refugee blurs, so does the distinction between migration control and refugee protection. Where refugees are seen as little more than a subgroup of irregular migrants, the control of their movement is likely to take precedence over meeting their protection needs. Another consequence is the growing unpopularity of refugees, because of fear that they will take jobs, commit crimes or simply stay too long.

Recommendations: The paper argues that the primary building block for the protection of refugees is an effective, national, legislative framework translating rights and commitments into domestic law in areas as diverse as border entry, detention, social welfare, health or education. The author suggests that integration needs to include economic integration as well as citizenship and a cultural process of acclimatisation by refugees and accommodation by local communities.

Scope: This is a discussion paper.

Country research undertaken in: Not applicable.

Keywords: definition of refugees; citizenship; civic/political participation; role of host country; social exclusion; education/training; economic participation; health/wellbeing; research methods: discussion paper; migrants, including refugees.

A48 Zetter, R. (1991). 'Labelling refugees: forming and transforming a bureaucratic identity'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 4(1), 40-62.

Research focus/aims: This essay examines how and with what consequences people become labelled as refugees within the context of public policy practices.

Participants: A large refugee population in Cyprus with selective secondary research data on various African refugee populations.

Key findings/outcomes: The author outlines the conceptual tools of bureaucratic labelling (including stereotyping, conformity, designation, identity desegregation and political/power relationships) and the processes by which labels are applied and used.

First, stereotyped identities are translated into bureaucratically assumed needs, and the label 'refugee' takes on a selective meaning. Then bureaucracies create distinctions between different 'categories' of refugee based on perceived need and in order to prioritise their own actions. The actions and programmes delivered by institutions can then (latently and manifestly) reinforce a disaggregated model of identity with disturbing distinctions between refugee and non-refugee. Designation as a refugee or not is not an end in itself. Labels create their own momentum especially where transitory situations become protracted.

The author cites evidence of this in second generation housing and refusal of title in Cyprus and in cases in the African situation where dependency and non-integration are displayed by refugees. In this way they can sustain an image of a transitory status.

The paper concludes by emphasising the extreme vulnerability of refugees to imposed labels, the importance of symbolic meaning, the dynamic nature of the identity and, most fundamentally of all, the non-participatory nature and powerlessness of refugees in these processes.

Recommendations: Careful observation of how the label 'refugee' is constructed is essential. The alternatives are predetermined stereotypes, inappropriately applied models from other cultures and crisis-imposed identities of powerlessness and dependency, which tend to destroy much of what they wish to support and undermine the identities they wish to sustain.

Scope: This is a reflective essay that draws on empirical evidence to explore the concept and implications of labelling. While it is now somewhat dated, the analysis remains relevant.

Keywords: definition of refugees; integration/social cohesion; citizenship; ethnic/cultural identity; role of host country; social exclusion; housing; host country/region: Cyprus; source country/region: Africa; research methods: discussion paper; refugees, including asylum seekers.

A49 Zetter, R. (2007). 'More labels, fewer refugees: remaking the refugee label in an era of globalisation'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 20(2), 172-192.

Research focus/aims: This author revisits the concept of 'labelling' originally presented in his earlier paper (Zetter 1991 [A48]) to see if it is still relevant given the changes in patterns of forced migration and developments in the fields involved with researching refugees since that time.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The author argues that the analytical strength of labelling and the three concepts contained in the original paper (i.e. forming, transforming and politicising an identity) are still relevant. This is despite major changes in patterns and volumes of forced migration and in the mix of migration flows. In particular, he considers two trends as particularly significant: a shift in the locus of the refugee regime to the global north and a change in focus from 'how and with what consequences humanitarian assistance was distributed and accessed' to 'how refugee status is distributed and how institutionalised practices seek to distinguish this status from other categories of migrant' (i.e. meaning 'refugee' status is now a prized status within the spectrum of 'forced migration'). In particular, the author argues the following in the contemporary era:

• The formation of the refugee label now reflects causes and patterns of forced migration that are much more complex than in the past (in the context of increased globalisation). This contrasts with the past when the label had essentially homogenous and stereotypical connotations.
• A process of bureaucratic 'fractioning' to manage new forms of migration has transformed the refugee label. (Fractioning here includes the development of a range of extra-territorial instruments for indictment that act to prevent access to the label of refugee as well as the distinction that is now drawn between genuine refugees and asylum seekers). Again, this contrasts with previous inclusive and homogenous connotations of the past, although producing similarly negative impacts on those that are labelled (for example, being disempowered and controlled).
• In transforming the label, a much greater role is played by governments in the global 'north' rather than by NGOs, as in the past.
• The refugee label has become politicised by both the process of bureaucratic fractioning and by legitimising and presenting a wider political discourse of resistance to refugees and migrants as merely an apolitical set of bureaucratic categories.

The author discusses these points in detail and concludes by stating that his concern has shifted from the labelling of refugees to the fractioning of the refugee label and about de-labelling refugees.

Recommendations: None.

Scope: A discussion piece.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: defining refugees; role of host country; research methods: discussion paper; refugees, including asylum seekers.

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