G. Education and training

School-based education

G1 Alitolppa-Niitamo, A. (2004). 'Somali youth in the context of schooling in metropolitan Helsinki: a framework for assessing variability in educational performance'. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 30(1), 81-107.

Research focus/aims: To identify factors affecting the educational performance of second-generation immigrants.

Participants: Somali-speaking population of metropolitan Helsinki.

Key findings/outcomes: The article considers incoming resources, social capital and receiving country variables. It concludes that the relative importance of different variables varies from case to case. Important factors included:

• the need to cope with cultural and language discontinuity
• the unwillingness of Finnish schools to receive students from diverse backgrounds
• racism, prejudice and anti-immigration sentiments in the receiving society
• the role of these youth as African-Muslim 'ice-breakers' in cases where there were no previous co-ethnic communities
• the bonding social capital based on family and kinship, traditionally strong among Somalis, was undermined by conflicts between the first and second generations in the diaspora.

Recommendations: The report acknowledges that there is no single field of intervention that would guarantee equal opportunity for the educational achievement of second generation immigrants. Because there are so many variables, there are several possible fields of action. Each student needs to be understood in relationship to his/her incoming resources and available social capital.

Scope: A small sample of Somali school students.

Country research undertaken in: Finland.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; language maintenance; social capital/networks; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; children/youth; first generation; second generation; host country/region: Finland; source country/region: Somalia; research methods: interviews; refugees.

G2 Baffoe, M. (2007). 'Navigating two worlds: culture and cultural adaptation of immigrant and refugee youth in a Quebec (Canadian) educational context'. Abstract only. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 68(5-A), 2168.

Research focus/aims: This study examined the social integration and educational experiences of teenage immigrant and refugee youth, mainly from minority backgrounds, in their first few years of contact with the Quebec educational system.

Participants: African immigrant and refugee youth in the Canadian educational system.

Key findings/outcomes: The findings showed that culture and cultural adaptation play very significant roles in the social and educational integration of immigrant and refugee children in Canadian society. They further pointed to how acculturation difficulties have led to many of these children feeling less motivated to study, losing interest in education or dropping out of the school system altogether. Implications of this research for curriculum development in education and social work practice with this population group are offered. These include the need for social service professionals and educators working with refugee youth to understand the different needs and history or cultural context of the country of origin of the refugees.

Others are the need for teachers to be culturally responsive and competent as they deal with increasingly diverse student populations. Of equal importance for policy formulators in the educational field is the need for curriculum that is designed to address the distinctive challenges of acculturation that these new arrivals face especially at the high school level in Quebec.

Recommendations: The thesis recommends structuring a longitudinal study to follow these youth participants over a period of time to examine the evolution of their ethnic identity, bicultural development, cultural values, educational attainment and the challenges they face as adults. A nationwide or an interprovincial study with similar population groups (with language as a significant variable) would provide a broader understanding of the integration issues associated with this population group.

Scope: Using a qualitative methodology, interviews were conducted with ten youth, eight parents, four community leaders, two social service reception centre workers and a school administrator, together with information from focus group discussions with a number of youth and parents from the same backgrounds.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; education/training; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: Africa; children/youth; research methods: interviews; migrants, including refugees.

G3 Hamilton, R. and Farrigua, S. (2006). Literature review: achievement of secondary students from refugee backgrounds. Wellington: Ministry of Education.

Research focus/aims: The purpose of this literature review is to examine theory and research relating to the influence of secondary school programmes and services on the achievement of students from refugee backgrounds. The review draws from three related areas of theory and research - the bioecological model of development, risk and resilience models, and adolescent development.

The review focuses on the achievement of students in non-language core curriculum courses such as mathematics and science.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The first part of the review presents the literature relating to the refugee context, including acculturation, adaptation to the new school environment and best practices in assisting young people, parents, schools and communities to adapt (through school structure and policy; the interface between school, family and community; classroom environment and instruction; and teacher professional development).

Throughout the paper, key points are highlighted in boxes under the headings: acculturation; adapting to the new school environment; best practices; risk and resiliency models; bioecological model; cognitive transitions; achievement; identity; autonomy; intimacy; biological transition and sexuality; problems during adolescence; important non-parental adults; welcoming and supportive environment; enrolment and placement; teaching and learning; and facilitating transition from school.

The authors concluded that family, community and societal factors were identified as important influences on a student's potential to achieve at high levels. In addition, they concluded a number of risk factors need to be addressed, such as lack of language proficiency, unrealistic or divergent expectations, lack of prior educational experience and exposure to violence. Protective factors that need to be fostered and reinforced, in order for secondary students from refugee backgrounds to thrive, included parental involvement, supportive adults and student self-confidence and esteem.

The authors suggest that any changes within schools that may be required to take a more proactive approach will build on existing systems and that changes to school structures and services developed to address the needs of this population will have positive effects for all students, such as a multicultural curriculum, increased teacher awareness of diversity, greater career counselling opportunities, teacher professional development and adoption of an ecological view of education.

Recommendations: The authors suggest that more programmatic research is needed on factors that influence children from refugee backgrounds at secondary school, in order to build on the findings drawn from related populations (for example, migrants, minorities and adolescents).

Scope: Literature review drawing on review of international databases and search of specific refugee centres, institutes or organisations.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: social capital/networks; ethnic/cultural identity; education/training; children/youth; first generation; research methods: review; refugees.

G4 Hamilton, R. and Anderson, A. (2000). Interventions for refugee children in New Zealand: methods, models and best practice. Wellington: Ministry of Education.

Research focus/aims: Strategies for working with refugee children in New Zealand schools.

Participants: Refugee children in New Zealand schools.

Key findings/outcomes: Each section of the review covers five stages: premigration factors; postmigration and moderating factors; what is done; what can be done; and what happens. The review discusses refugee trauma, loss and grief and implications for intervention; second language concerns for refugee children; resilience; issues associated with migration, including acculturation; school and teacher effects; and conceptual and policy issues. The report includes potential indicators for documenting change in areas such as adapting to a new environment; ongoing risk and resilience factors, including barriers and facilitators, in the individual, the family, the school and the community; indicators of good practice and outcome indicators.

Recommendations: The final chapter suggests best practice in the areas of psychological and therapeutic needs; language needs; fostering resilience; easing the transition to a new country and culture; structure of schools, school policies and teaching practices; facilitating school change and teacher development and inclusive education.

Scope: Review of New Zealand and international literature from 1990 onwards.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; social capital/networks; role of host country; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; host country/region: New Zealand; research methods: review; research methods: indicators/measures; refugees.

G5 Hek, R. (2005). 'The role of education in the settlement of young refugees in the UK: the experiences of young refugees'. Practice: Social Work in Action, 17(3), 157-171.

Research focus/aims: The research explores young refugees' views on factors that help them settle and achieve in schools.

Participants: Students aged between 13 and 17 from a range of ethnic backgrounds. Most had been in the UK for several years.

Key findings/outcomes: The factors that helped young people settle in school were:

• the presence of specialist teachers who speak their first language and have skills in addressing specific learning needs
• support from friends and peer group
• the whole school attitude to refugee children, allowing them to feel confident to identify themselves as refugees.

Having friends from their own background was vital, but there were also benefits in mixing with students from a variety of backgrounds in establishing a sense of belonging. The whole school attitude was evident in response to bullying and the development of an anti-bullying ethos, teachers' attitudes and positive links with home.

Recommendations: The author urges that recommendations already made by other bodies should be implemented. Social workers also need to be aware of the role the school plays in the lives of young refugees.

Scope: A small study based on in-depth interviews with 15 students from two schools.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: language maintenance; social capital/networks; ethnic/cultural identity; role of host country; social exclusion; language acquisition/ESOL; education/training; children/youth; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: interviews; refugees.

G6 Warren, S. (2006). 'Integration of new migrants: education'. In S. Spencer (Ed.), Refugees and other new migrants: a review of the evidence on successful approaches to integration (pp. 73-83). Oxford: Centre on Migration, Policy and Society (COMPAS).

Research focus/aims: Reviews approaches to education as an aspect of integration for refugees and new migrants.

Participants: Migrants and refugees who have been in the UK less than five years.

Key findings/outcomes: As with other papers in this review, the author identifies a lack of evidence on refugee education. Evidence shows that refugee children, young people and their families see schools as a safe and supportive environment but do have an issue with language acquisition. There is a strong correlation between educational attainment, ethnicity and economic deprivation. These factors may compound or outweigh language difficulties. Access barriers include a lack of places in schools, frequent moves and poor housing conditions. Racism is also a problem. The provision of specialist teacher support has been a successful intervention, especially where there is good initial assessment and ongoing monitoring. Providing a positive transition when students change schools, support for families and language support have also had positive outcomes.

Recommendations: The author recommends that education should be judged by access to education, access to teaching and learning and access to achievement. He suggests that there should be effective and timely signposting of appropriate entitlements and provision, and sustainable, effective support provided in a holistic manner.

Scope: A literature review of approaches to education in the UK for new migrants and refugees. Discusses appropriate measures: the percentage of refugee children reaching benchmark achievement at the end of each stage of education; the number taking up preschool education; the proportion of refugee children placed in special needs provision; the number of refugees entering university; and the clustering of refugee children in particular schools.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; ethnic/cultural identity; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; housing; children/youth; research methods: review; research methods: indicators/measures; migrants, including refugees.

Post-school education and training

G7 Ben-Moshe, D., Bertone, S. and Grossman, M. (2008). Refugee access and participation in tertiary education and training: final report to the Adult and Community Education Board (ACFE) and the Victorian Multicultural Commission (VMC). Melbourne: Institute for Community, Ethnicity and Policy Alternatives (ICEPA), Victoria University.

Research focus/aims: The research aimed to identify best practice in refugee access to education and training.

Participants: Melbourne-based ethnic leaders, tertiary education staff, teaching and administrative staff. and refugees and asylum seekers from four education providers.

Key findings/outcomes: The authors identified a number of key barriers for refugees and asylum seekers in accessing education and training. Those not specific to asylum seekers included the following:

• Financial barriers arising from low income, the need to support numerous dependents while studying and difficulties in accessing paid employment.
• Access to and affordability of public transport in both urban and regional locations limiting access to classes and to preferred courses.
• Housing problems - Most permanent refugees reported gaining assistance in the early days of settlement. However, ongoing problems with private housing (such as evictions, inappropriate residences and even demolition) posed major issues for those trying to study and attend courses on a regular basis. These problems were compounded by lack of information and awareness of housing options and rights.
• English language barriers - This is the case for any new group whose first language is not English, but it is particularly frustrating for highly educated refugees who were impatient to resume paid work at a professional level. The lack of English skills necessary to pursue training or qualifications was demoralising for some refugees, and some might feel tempted to give up because the journey to English proficiency was so long.
• Psychological barriers - These are mainly associated with past traumas overseas, but also arise from the experience of extended detention in Australia, loneliness, depression, isolation from friends and families overseas, a sense of helplessness and uncertainty or anxiety about the future. These psychological states were reported to have deleterious effects on students' ability to concentrate and persevere with their studies.
• Childcare barriers - Inability to access appropriate childcare within reasonable time periods, often due to long waiting lists.
• Gender barriers - A multitude of barriers (cultural, economic and social) were said to be faced by female refugees in particular, such as the uneven division of labour in the household, which impacted on the ability to study.
• Understanding systems - A lack of familiarity with the Australian education system and information gaps in regard to training and employment pathways is exacerbated by an inability to access most publicly funded services other than TAFE courses.
• Language training - The lack of access to 510 hours of English provision (for temporary refugees or asylum seekers) and inability to self-narrate or present a convincing self-portrait due to many years as a refugee.

Recommendations: The authors suggest that a critical element of success in supporting refugees is the adoption of an integrated approach that recognises the diversity of refugees as well as the relationships between the broader needs of refugees (such as housing, childcare, finances, etc.) and their successful participation in education and training. As a first priority, refugee access to higher education needs to be supported by an overall programme approach that is underpinned by:

• an institutional policy framework that is endorsed and supported by the institution
• principles that recognise and celebrate the diversity of refugees and the specific barriers that refugees face in education access
• the development of links and communication between refugee support services, refugee community members and the institution
• resources for the engagement of a worker to support refugee access and to implement the strategies necessary to maximise retention and successful employment outcomes.

The authors also suggest that further research is required to understand the progress of refugees through the education and training system to employment. It is recommended that a longitudinal case study be undertaken of refugee cohorts to identify the extent to which refugees are achieving outcomes through their participation in education and training as well as to identify key constraints and success factors in the process of achieving a sustainable career path.

Scope: A multilayered approach was used, including a national and international literature review, consultations with a range of ethnic leaders and tertiary education staff, interviews with administrative and teaching staff within six education providers and focus group discussions with refugees and asylum seekers from four education providers.

Country research undertaken in: Australia.

Keywords: education/training; ESOL/language acquisition; housing; children/youth; women; host country/region: Australia; research methods: review; research methods: interview; refugees, including asylum seekers.

G8 Doyle, L. and McCorriston, M. (2008). Beyond the school gates: supporting refugees and asylum seekers in secondary school. London: Refugee Council.

Research focus/aims: This research explored the needs and experience of refugees and asylum seekers (including young people, their parents and refugee community organisations) in relation to secondary schools in England. It was undertaken as part of the Inclusive Secondary Schools Project - a three-year project aimed at researching and piloting new ways to links schools with refugees and asylum seeking young people, their parents and/or carers and refugee community organisations (RCOs).

Participants: The research was based on 70 in-depth interviews, and questionnaire surveys with RCOs, secondary schools and local authorities.

Key findings/outcomes: The findings fell into three main categories: experience and engagement; barriers to inclusion; and meeting the needs of refugees and asylum seekers. Under the heading experience and engagement, young people identified high levels of parent/carer involvement and generally felt very positively about the support they received from parents/carers, and while proficiency in English could be a barrier, parents continued to try and engage with secondary schools. Parents/carers had general levels of satisfaction with schools with high levels of involvement.

Recommendations: None.

Scope: This report was based on the findings of a review of secondary source material (published reports, guidance documents and academic articles), a survey of 50 local education authorities in greater London and key dispersal areas, visits to models of education provision in that area from which case studies and examples were drawn, interviews with practitioners in local education authorities and in non-school education settings, national experts in the field other than school, asylum seekers and refugee children, and refugee and asylum seeking young people aged between 14 and 16 years.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: education/training; dispersal policies; children/youth; host country/region: United Kingdom; refugees, including asylum seekers.

G9 Refugee Council. (2005). Daring to dream: raising the achievement of 14 to 16 year old asylum seeking and refugee children and young people. London: Refugee Council.

Research focus/aims: The theme of this United Kingdom-based research is the success and achievement of asylum seeking and refugee young people in education. The focus of this research was on young people aged 14-16 years, as the issues for this group have been previously identified as particularly complex. The aim of the research is to expand the evidence base to better inform education practice and further research or support for this group and to inform and influence and the development of national guidance materials from the Department for Education and Skills.

Participants: Survey participants from local education authorities in greater London and key dispersal areas, interviews with practitioners in local education authorities and in non-school education settings, subject experts in the field, and refugee children and refugee and asylum seeking young people aged between 14 and 16 years.

Key findings/outcomes: The authors first suggest that refugee children share common experiences that distinguish them from other new arrivals and from settled children in minority ethnic communities. These include that they may have experienced some or each of the following: violence or witnessing of violence and threatening situations, separation or loss of family members, destruction of their homes and/or a dangerous and stressful flight from their home country. In addition, they may have lost possessions and friends; have feared discovery, imprisonment, physical and sexual abuse; have emotionally detached parents or carers and may have had a disrupted education.

Some of the findings of this report were more relevant for asylum seeking young people, who, together with other family members, face a range of additional uncertainties than those who have been recognised as refugees in the United Kingdom.

The authors of this report suggest that the key intervention of restabilising a young person's environment by helping them to become part of the local school community will promote their emotional wellbeing and be the vehicle by which they, their families and the refugee community can achieve full integration. Detailed findings are broadly divided into context (including impact of asylum legislation and support on families, unaccompanied asylum seeking children, and education authorities and schools) and key issues (including access to schooling, pupil mobility and mid-phase admissions, provision and access to the curriculum, funding and support, and data collection and monitoring).

The conclusion draws together some of the complexities that may interact to work as barriers to the achievement of refugee young people, including the pressures on schools to improve examination results and funding arrangements. They also suggest that, while there are many examples of good practice around, there is no ready means of disseminating this information.

Recommendations: This report makes a number of recommendations specific to particular bodies including the Department for Education and Skills, the Office for Standards in Education, local education authorities, schools and colleges, and other organisations. For example, it was suggested that the Department for Education and Skills should:

• engage experts to help develop guidance materials using experts on supporting 14-16 year old asylum seeking and refugee youth
• ensure that schools are aware of their legal responsibilities
• improve the availability of statistical information on refugee and asylum seeking children
• monitor the effect of funding policies.

Finally, areas for further research were identified, including on the impacts of different forms of education practice with a view to developing models of best practice, the extent and barriers to the involvement of parents and carers of refugee children in their education, and the views of refugee and asylum seeking youth on their educational expectations, needs, barriers, strengths and aspirations.

Scope: This research included a review of secondary sources, including published reports, guidance documents and academic articles, a survey of 50 local education authorities in greater London and key dispersal areas, visits to models of education provision, and interviews of young people, key LEA staff, national experts in fields of refugee education and government officials with an interest or expertise in the field.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: dispersal policies; role of host country; education/training; health/wellbeing; children/youth; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: review; research methods: interviews; refugees, including asylum seekers.

G10 Victorian Settlement Planning Committee. (2008). Pathways and transitions: postcompulsory education, work and refugee young people. Melbourne: Centre for Multicultural Youth.

Research focus/aims: This paper reports on the findings of the Postcompulsory Education Working Group of the Victorian Settlement Planning Committee.

Participants: Case studies.

Key findings/outcomes: In the main body of this report, the working group presents a set of case studies that illustrate effective ways of responding to the needs of adolescents and young people. The introduction of this report identifies a list of issues faced by refugee young people including:

• uncertainly about the future and how best to achieve their goals in new circumstances
• intense feelings associated with previous life experiences, such as for family and friends who remain in difficult circumstances (for example, in refugee camps)
• uncertainty about how to evaluate Australian society based on mixed experiences of racism and other forms of discrimination, and perceptions and experiences of racism and other forms of discrimination
• mismatches between a perception of themselves as old enough to make independent decisions and their experiences of Australian institutions that define them as too young, insufficiently qualified or incompetent
• conflicts between their perceptions of what they need to do and Australian requirements for specific levels of English and education.

The working group also identifies some broader structural factors that specifically affect the ways 'forced migrants' access education and training. These include:

• the settlement patterns of forced migrants, because they often move to newer or outer suburbs where housing is available and cheaper - these patterns of settlement mean that forced migrants are often in areas where infrastructure has not developed sufficiently
• the mobile and dispersed nature of the population means that established agencies in some locations may not have sufficient facilities or resources to meet the needs of young people in other places
• high transport costs and other difficulties (for example, lack of public transport services in outer metropolitan and regional areas and difficulties in getting a driver's licence)

To address these issues, the working group suggests application of the fundamental principles of flexibility; sensitivity to the wide range and interconnectedness of the issues; and connecting individuals, families and communities. Case study material is provided illustrating examples of one or more of:

• providing refugee and asylum seeker clients with supported choice resulting in the support of flexibility
• recognising and building on existing skills
• looking for diverse and inclusive ways of doing things, including community involvement
• communication across and between jurisdictions, institutions, programmes and pathways
• identifying the interrelated barriers to participation and transition
• scoping and creating linkages that align existing resources to integrate/connect education and other service provisions
• where gaps are identified, providing programmes and funding in ways that address the interconnectedness of the barriers.

Recommendations: The working group makes a range of recommendations, including enhanced and consistent methods of data collection, information and resource sharing, concessions in using public transport, allowing for flexibility in the ways in which training (including ESOL) hours are used and recognised (including between programmes) and ensuring that the transition to work doesn't happen prematurely.

Scope: This paper uses case studies to illustrate ways in which a range of agencies have addressed the needs of young people with disrupted education (such as refugee and asylum seeking young people).

Country research undertaken in: Australia.

Keywords: dispersal policies; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; children/youth; host country/region: Australia; research methods: case studies; refugees, including asylum seekers.

Language and literacy

G11 Boyd, S. (2003). Language instruction and the integration of immigrants and refugees in the Nordic region, especially Sweden. Retrieved on 28 November 2008 from www.amarauna-languages.com/orokorra/artikuluak/eu/1._Sally Boyd.pdf.

Research focus/aims: This paper explores aspects of language instruction (both in the host country language and first language) across the four Nordic states: Sweden, Finland, Norway and Denmark. This research draws from the findings of an earlier study conducted by the author,^[14] which looked at patterns of language use over time.

Participants: The earlier study included migrants from North America, Finland (who were now living in Sweden or Norway) Turkey and Vietnam. (Further details not provided in this article.)

Key findings/outcomes: The author found that the four Nordic countries were similar in that they each had universal welfare policies where social benefits are allocated to all residents and universal integration policies, requiring and assuming permanent residence on the part of migrants. Once a migrant has a residence permit, he or she is entitled to all benefits (except certain voting rights) and has access to the intra-Nordic labour market. The author then briefly reviews the policies in each of the countries on availability and location of host country language instruction for adults and school children, and the availability of instruction to immigrants in first language. The author notes that there is a trend in Nordic countries towards a less generous policy towards immigrant minority languages in favour of an emphasis on integration (which is equated with assimilation) through learning the majority language.

From her early work on language use and transmission of immigrant minority languages from migrants to their children, the author found that all of the adults (and children to a lesser extent) in the Turkish and Vietnamese groups used their first language to a higher extent that the Americans and Finns. This was explained in terms of family building patterns, education and admittance (or discrimination within) the local labour market. The author suggests that some of the difference that did exist between groups in different countries may be due to a greater availability of preschools and school systems, which meant that children had been in education settings for more time.

A general conclusion was that language maintenance and shift depend not only on characteristics of the migrant groups in language contact, but also on the conditions that they come to, and the social networks they are able to build up in the new country.

Recommendations: In examining examples of best practice in bilingual education, the author suggests most benefit is gained from programmes with the following features:

• The goal of instruction is bilinguism or multilinguism, not only learning the majority language or integration.
• The projects are locally run, and participants and/or the community have been involved in initiating the projects and are involved in ongoing decision making processes.
• They involve members of the community as bilingual or multilingual teachers. This means children see that skills in their languages are valued and that the languages can be used as languages of instruction.
• Programmes teach other subjects (i.e. not just language classes) in other languages than the host country language. The author suggests that this further increases the status of other languages and develops skills in these languages at the same time as they learn other subject matter.

Scope: Review of the literature incorporating previous research undertaken by the author and examples of best practice.

Country research undertaken in: Sweden.

Keywords: language maintenance; ESOL/language acquisition; education/training; youth; host country/region: Nordic states; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research method: review; migrants, including refugees.

---