ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Family and social networks

In keeping with the Settlement Strategy goal that "migrants, refugees and their families are able to form supportive social networks", this section lists research on various forms of social networks to which young migrants and refugees belong. Chief among these is the family, understood here in broad terms to include relatives living both within and beyond the immediate household in which a young person lives. As noted in the discussion above, research on social networks other than families is relatively sparse although some work on peer relationships has been identified for inclusion here.

A subsection on youth crime research has been included at the end of this section because family relationships and peer networks are an important element of what little there is of this research.

F1. Aipolo, A. Holmes, J., 1990 'The use of Tongan in New Zealand: Prospects for language maintenance', Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 11, 6, 501-21.

Research focus/aims: To identify Tongan language proficiency and usage among Tongans in Wellington and to explore their attitudes towards the language.

Participants: Members of the Tongan community in Wellington, across the adult age range.

Key findings/outcomes: Results indicated fluency in Tongan and English and a high level of Tongan language maintenance. Attitudes to the language are generally very positive. Parents reported using mainly Tongan to their children - a very important indicator of future language proficiency and a sign that major language shift may not yet be underway. Young people would regularly switch between Tongan and English in casual conversation. This code-switching may be a sign of in-group identity for young Tongans, but these young people reported speaking Tongan to their elders and to Tongans outside their groups. Code-switching is also likely to be sign of incipient language shift towards the use of English. Few young people seemed aware of the dangers of language loss.

Scope: Interview questionnaire of a random sample of 100 Tongan people living in Wellington. Three-quarters were aged between 20 and 40 years. See also Daly (1990) [F3] and Pilkington (1990) [F18].

Keywords: family - language, identity - acculturation, peer relationships, Tongan, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews

F2. Anyan, S. E. and Pryor. J. 2002 'What is in a family? Adolescent perceptions', Children and Society, 16, 5, 306-17.

Research focus/aims: To explore cultural and family structure differences in adolescents' family perceptions, particularly with respect to ethnic differences and the possible impact of family structure on family perceptions.

Participants: Secondary school students (n=232: 113 females and 119 males) drawn from four mid-decile schools. Ethnic composition: 60.3 percent European New Zealanders, 15.9 percent Asian (Chinese), 12.9 percent New Zealand Maori, 10.8 percent Pacific nation students. Most (68.5 percent) lived with their biological parents, 14.2 percent lived in a stepfamily household, 12.1 percent with a lone parent (as a result of divorce) and 5.2 percent with a widowed parent.

Key findings/outcomes: Ethnic group differences included: (1) Maori adolescents endorsed a wider range of family forms than those in other ethnic groups and made no distinction between cohabiting and married parents. (2) Asian adolescents were more conservative in their endorsement of different groupings as family, and were less likely than the other groups to see non-traditional structures (such as same-sex parents) as family. Marriage was also important for this group. (3) All groups mentioned love and caring more often than any other criteria in their reasons for endorsing family groupings. (4) Grandparents were important in all groups, and particularly in Pacific nation, Maori and Asian groups. Suggests that by late adolescence, young people's own cultural and social experiences are reflected in their endorsement of what constitutes a family.

Recommendations: Cultural differences in perceptions about family should be kept in mind when working with children and their families.

Scope: Questionnaires investigated whether participants regarded various given groupings as families, and why or why not they gave particular responses about this.

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, Maori, Asian, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

F3. Daly, N., 1990 'Sri Lankans and Sinhala language maintenance in New Zealand', Wellington Working Papers in Linguistics, 1, 17-27.

Research focus/aims: To examine language maintenance and language shift among a community of Sinhalese speaking Sri Lankan immigrants to New Zealand.

Participants: First generation Sri Lankan migrants resident in New Zealand (from 6 months to 21 years). All were parents and all had a tertiary education of some kind. The language proficiency of children in each family (age range: 3 years - 29 years) was also explored through the interview questionnaire.

Key findings/outcomes: Parents use of Sinhala to children was mixed with English and some used only English. Children's proficiency was not high. Language shift appears to be taking place more rapidly than is common for immigrant communities. Reasons for this: exogamy; the high status of English in Sri Lanka; the use of English as a lingua franca by Sri Lankans in New Zealand. Language maintenance was highest in families where both parents were Sinhalese and Buddhist, had left Sri Lanka within the last decade, where Sinhalese was dominant in the mother's childhood home, where a Sinhala speaking relative lived in the household and where Sinhala was used in the majority of domains.

Scope: Interview questionnaire administered to parents in ten families. Survey was a modified and reduced version of that used by 'Aipolo and Holmes (1990) [F1]. See also Pilkington (1990) [F18].

Keywords: family - language, identity - acculturation, Sri Lankan, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews

F4. Davis, K., Bell, A., and Starks, D., 2001 'Maori and Pasifika languages in Manukau: A preliminary study', Many Voices, 17, 8-13.

Research focus/aims: Reports on pilot project on use, maintenance and educational dimensions of languages in Manukau, focusing on Maori and Pacific people.

Participants: Maori, Samoan, Tongan, Niuean, Cook Island Maori in Manukau

Key findings/outcomes: Found language shift towards English underway; Tongan and Samoan presently robust, but concern among young people about language loss; language maintenance is achieved through strong networks, extended family, older native speakers, exchange with the homeland. Language seen as vital for identity. Parent and community support shown as vital for viability of school programmes to maintain language.

Scope: Census analysis as well as interviews with a range of people from language communities including older and younger people, and educators.

Keywords: family - language, identity - acculturation, Maori, Samoan, Tongan, Niuean, Cook Island, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews, national data

F5. Foliaki, L., 1992 'The migrant child', Many Voices, 2, 17-22.

Research focus/aims: Analysis of the experience of being a migrant child with respect to parental expectations; parental ability to support children in a new country; the host country's support (or lack thereof) for migrant families; migrant communities' own capacity to offer support to newcomers.

Participants: Focus on Pacific peoples, particularly the Tongan community.

Key findings/outcomes: Relationships operating at the different levels (noted above) produce a complex situation for the child; importance to the migrant community of the young adults who came to New Zealand as children and who have successfully negotiated the education system and have become well integrated into society.

Scope: An analytical paper drawing on personal experience as a Tongan migrant and on analysis of significant cultural differences between Tonga (and other Pacific Islands) and New Zealand at the levels of family, church, community and wider society.

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, identity - acculturation, Pacific - Tongan, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, reflections on professional practice

F6. Green, V.J., 1998 Tupulaga Tokelau in New Zealand: The Tokelau younger generation in New Zealand, PhD Anthropology, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To study the historical context of the migration of Tokelauans to New Zealand including the establishment and social organisation of their communities in the North Island, and the post-settlement outcomes of this group and their descendants.

Participants: Tupulaga ('the younger generation') and tupuna (elders) in the New Zealand Tokelau population, formal community associations, the national association of affiliated tupulaga groups, groups of 'detached' tupulaga geographically scattered throughout New Zealand.

Key findings/outcomes: Tupulaga leaders promoted 'Tokelau ways in New Zealand' and supported their people 'becoming Tokelau in New Zealand' as residents of urban communities. Through the association of affiliated groups, they guided the transition of those communities from migrant to cultural identities. Intergenerational issues contributed to the decisions by tupulagi to 'detach' from community networks and activities.

Scope: Ethnographic study. See also:

• Green, V.S., 1988 from conformity to choice: An ethnography of Tokelau youth detached from the New Zealand Ethnic Community. Auckland, Green and Research Associates.

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, Tokelau, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, ethnography

F7. Herbert, D.L., 1977 Generations and cultures: Conflict in Samoan, Cook Island and Niuean adolescents in New Zealand, MSocSc Psychology, University of Waikato, Hamilton.

Research focus/aims: To investigate adolescent/perceived parent disparity on several culture specific issues relating to intergenerational conflict.

Participants: Samoan, Cook Island and Niuean young people (n=60) and adults (n=27).

Key findings/outcomes: The most important variables affecting intergenerational conflict were: religious beliefs, parental membership in cultural clubs, length of time in New Zealand. Major conflict areas included: language preferences, food preferences, attitudes towards returning to the Islands to live, religion, attitudes towards the importance of teaching young people about Island music and dances (for Niueans and Cook Islanders) and attitudes towards freedom for young people. Comparison with the adult sample showed general agreement, but the adults predicted more conflict than the adolescents. Concludes that Samoan adolescents (compared with Cook Islanders and Niueans) are exposed to value systems and norms of behaviour that are most different from New Zealand standards.

Scope: Survey questionnaire.

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, identity - acculturation, Pacific - Samoan, Cook Island, Niuean, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

F8. Ho, E.S., Bedford, R., and Goodwin, J.E., 1997 'Astronaut' families: A contemporary migration phenomenon, Aotearoa/New Zealand Migration Research Network, Massey University, Albany.

Research focus/aims: To examine the pattern of 'astronaut' migration to New Zealand from Hong Kong and Taiwan in which some family members return to their countries of origin to work while the remaining family members stay in New Zealand.

Participants: Hong Kong Chinese, Taiwanese and Korean immigrant young people aged 15-19 years (n=441) in ten Auckland secondary schools. The parents of these young people (n=124). (Length of residence ranged from 2 months to 8 years.)

Key findings/outcomes: Results suggest that the majority of 'astronauts' identified through the survey were males aged 40-49. Their main reasons for coming to New Zealand were perceived better educational opportunities for their children, and better lifestyle for their families. The study also details a methodology using Census data for identifying 'astronaut' families and their so-called 'parachute kids'. This method is used to identify this group for Hong Kong migrants coming to New Zealand between 1986 and 1991. Analysis indicated that most Hong Kong children in New Zealand were living with their parents. Those who were not living with their parents (n=300) were living with siblings, relatives or other persons. Nine were living alone. Estimates that in this group there might be 100 one-parent families with Hong Kong children who had a parent living overseas.

Scope: Data gathered from two self completion questionnaires (one for the young people and one for their parents). Census data analysis. See also:

• Aye, A. and Guerin, B., 2001 'Asian astronaut families in New Zealand: Their characteristics and impact, and the implications for psychological practice', New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 30, 9-15.

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, family - acculturation, Asian - Hong Kong, Taiwanese, South Korean, migrants, overseas born, survey, national data

F9. Joudi, R., 2002 Intergenerational cultural transition: Iraqi female migrants talk about cultural adaptation and preservation in New Zealand. A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology, at Massey University, Albany.

Research focus/aims: To explore how Iraqi female migrants talk about and make sense of Arab culture and the preservation of Arab culture in a western society.

Participants: Iraqi female migrants to New Zealand: five mother and daughter pairs.

Key findings/outcomes: Arab mothers sought to preserve Arab culture and beliefs while living in New Zealand. Their daughters, raised in New Zealand, sought cultural conservation and to be freed from cultural and parental control. Participants defined Arab culture and identity in terms of difference and exclusion in relation to New Zealand society, and this informed their social behaviour and activity. But participants were also keen to establish membership of their host society.

Scope: Small scale qualitative discourse analysis from ten semi-structured interviews.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, family - intergenerational relationships, Iraqi, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews.

F10. Liu, J.H., Ng, S.H., Loong C., Gee, S., and Weatherall, A., 2003 'Cultural stereotypes and social representations of elders from Chinese and European perspectives', Journal of Cross Cultural Gerontology, 18, 2, 149-168.

Research focus/aims: To explore how cultural understandings (New Zealand European and Chinese) of intergenerational relationships influence the stereotypes that young and middle-aged people hold of older people. Hypotheses: (1) That cultural differences do exist and in particular that Chinese New Zealanders will hold more finely differentiated subtypes of older people according to traditional Chinese social roles. (2) That each ethnic group will hold more differentiated perceptions of its own elders that of elders of the other group. (3) That the perceptions of elders held by the middle-aged will be more differentiated than those held by young people. (4) That Europeans will be more likely than Chinese to see ethnic out-group elders as all the same.

Participants: Chinese and European families living in Wellington (n= 100 and 103 families respectively, involving 286 Chinese and 298 European individuals).

Key findings/outcomes: Hypotheses (1) and (4) were strongly supported. Hypotheses (2) and (3) were refuted.

Scope: Part of a large in-depth study of intergenerational communication and ageism in New Zealand (see Liu et al 2000 [F11]).

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, identity - acculturation, Asian - Chinese, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

F11. Liu, J.H., Ng, S.H., Weatherall, A., and Loong, C., 2000 'Filial piety, acculturation, and intergenerational communication among New Zealand Chinese', Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 22, 3, 213-223.

Research focus/aims: To investigate attitudes towards caring for the elderly (filial piety) held by younger family members in two generations of New Zealand Chinese in Wellington.

Participants: 100 Chinese families with members of at least two generations living in Wellington (n=286 individuals). Average age of 150 middle aged participants: 46.9 years. Average age of 136 younger participants: 16.9 years. Less than one half of the group was New Zealand born.

Key findings/outcomes: In general, there was strong acceptance by participants of filial piety obligations. Expectations from elderly parents were felt more strongly than from grandparents; while filial piety did not appear to be directly influenced by gender, place of birth or Chinese language fluency, social identification as a New Zealander and as a Chinese were positively associated with filial piety obligations and expectations. These obligations were also positively associated with good intergenerational communication.

Scope: Part of a large in-depth study of intergenerational communication and ageism in New Zealand that involved random selection of participants (n=2687) and then non-random selection to fit sampling criteria. The phases of the research included a questionnaire and an interview or a trait sorting task. Data were analysed statistically. See also:

• Ng, S.H., Loong, C.S.F., Liu, J.H., and Weatherall, A., 2000 'Will the young support the old? An individual- and family-level study of filial obligations in two New Zealand cultures', Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 3, 2, 163-182, which drew on the same study to compare filial obligations among the Chinese participants with those among members of 103 New Zealand European families. Results indicate that both groups adhered to an obligation hierarchy in which social contact with, and respect for, the older generation emerged as most important. Chinese participants ranked more highly than Europeans on a range of obligations including obedience and financial support. Gender differences did not emerge.

• Ng, S.H., Weatherall, A., Liu, J.H., and Loong, C.F.S., 1998 Ages ahead: Promoting inter-generational relationships, Wellington: Wright and Carman.

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, identity - acculturation, Asian - Chinese, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

F12. Lunt, N., McPherson, J., and Browning, J., 2006 Les familles et whanau sans frontières: New Zealand and transnational family obligation, New Zealand Families Commission, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To understand better the dynamics of New Zealand's transnational families, through a consideration of past, present and emerging trends. Questions included: Why and how do transnational families form? What do transnational families look like in terms of size, geographical dispersal, and cross-country linkages? When do transnational families form in life cycles, family cycles, and generation cycles?

Participants: Primarily a literature review, but included a small number (not specified) of participants including: key stakeholders, spokespeople from organisations working with older people and advocating for migrants and individuals living transnational family lives.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) There is an emerging language of transnationalism focused on mobility and hybridity. (2) The dynamics of transnational family formation include families as migration units, chain migration, and family reunions and sponsorship (including marriage and sponsorship). (3) Transnational family living can result in isolation and lack of social support for a range of groups including international students, parents of young children, those migrants parenting alone with partners overseas, and older people. (4) Pensions influence where retirees choose to live. (6) Remittances can be integral to sustaining relationships and wellbeing in host and home countries.

Scope: Primarily a review of national and international literature but also included some scoping discussions and informal conversations with participants noted above.

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, family - transnationalism, migrants, overseas born, review of international and national literature, interviews

F13. McElwee, D. N., 1996 The effects of ethnic group cultural differences on the level of cooperative behaviour exhibited in a social dilemma: a New Zealand European-Asian cross-cultural study. A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Commerce and Management at Lincoln University, Lincoln.

Research focus/aims: To assess the effects of ethnic group cultural differences on students' choices to co-operate or compete with another party at the individual and group level.

Participants: University students: European New Zealanders (n=153) and Asian (n=30).

Key findings/outcomes: Limited support was found for the proposition that ethnic differences affect levels of co-operative behaviour. Asian participants did not exhibit more collectivist-co-operative behaviour than their European peers at either individual or group levels. But, the collectivist situational cue was found to significantly reduce levels of co-operative behaviour among the European New Zealander participants, but not among the Asian participants.

Scope: Used a two-party version of the Prisoner's Dilemma with all-European and all-Asian groups.

Keywords: peer relationships, Asian, Pakeha, migrant, overseas born, test (psychology)

F14. New Zealand Federation of Ethnic Councils, 1993 'Multi-ethnic Aotearoa New Zealand: Challenge of the Future: Proceedings', 1993 National Conference, Wellington, New Zealand Federation of Ethnic Councils.

Research focus/aims: Panellists in a workshop on Ethnic Youth Issues consider (1) intergenerational issues associated with migration and (2) issues relating to the establishment of a youth group for the Indian community in Wellington.

Key findings/outcomes: Intergenerational issues highlighted include culture clash between the generations in immigrant households as young people adapt to their host culture while parents emphasise the importance of traditional cultural values and modes of behaviour. Encourages parents to familiarise themselves with the new environment, to facilitate the adjustment of their children by accepting aspects of the new culture, and to support their teenagers' own development of separate identity. The case study of the establishment of an Indian youth group further emphasises issues of culture clash between immigrant parents and their children. Argues that conflicting pressures from both sides (traditional Indian culture and western forms of culture) leave young people experiencing an identity crisis, feelings of marginalisation and guilt. Argues that the establishment of a youth group could help young Indian people (1) in the development of their own cultural identities and (2) to make Indian culture a more visible part of New Zealand society.

Scope: Reflections from professional practice and personal experience.

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, identity - acculturation, Indian, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, reflections on professional practice

F15. Ng, S.H., He, A., and Loong, C., 2004 'Tri-generational family conversations: Communication accommodation and brokering', British Journal of Social Psychology, 43, 3, 449-464.

Research focus/aims: To collect samples of tri-generational conversations within ethnic Chinese families in New Zealand in order to explore both the communication barriers that arise because of acculturation and linguistic mismatching (particularly between first and third generation members), and also to examine strategies that families develop to overcome these barriers - brokering by second generation members, in particular.

Participants: 12 Chinese families drawn from a larger sample in a larger project. Families were tri-generational and resident in Wellington. They were diverse in terms of country of origin, language and residency in New Zealand. Two members of each generation in each family were interviewed.

Key findings/outcomes: Brokers were mostly middle-aged parents, and brokering was significantly over-represented in families displaying an intermediate (rather than high or low) level of acculturation. In most cases brokering successfully overcame generation gap and language barriers, showing that these families had managed to develop successful adaptation strategies to communication problems occasioned by language mismatch.

Scope: From a larger study in which interviews were held with 18 Chinese families and 20 European families with three generations living in the Wellington area.

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, family - language, Asian, Chinese, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews

F16. Ng, S. H., Liu, J.H., Weatherall, A., and Loong, C.F.S., 1997 'Younger adults' communication experiences and contact with elders and peers', Human Communication Research, 24, 1, 82-108.

Research focus/aims: To test the following hypotheses: (1) That younger adults experience increasingly positive communication across the range from peers (most positive) to family elderly to non-family elderly (least positive). (2) That females' experiences and contact will be more positive than males'. (3) That Chinese New Zealanders contact with both family and non-family elderly will be more positive than that of European New Zealanders. (4) That Chinese New Zealanders will hold more positive view of the elderly than European New Zealanders.

Participants: Wellington residents of European or Chinese descent, ranging in age from 16 to 46 years. All Europeans had lived in New Zealand for most of their lives; 13 Chinese participants were born in New Zealand, the remainder had lived in New Zealand from 2 to 45 years.

Key findings/outcomes: Consistent with hypothesis (1) communication was found to be most positive with family and with peers. Results for hypothesis (2) were somewhat equivocal. Consistent with hypothesis (4) more positive views of the elderly were found among Chinese than among European New Zealanders, but contrary to hypothesis (3) these views did not translate into better communication experiences for the Chinese participants.

Scope: Participants were recruited from a randomly selected group of university students and from a list compiled by the authors and their informants. Results are drawn from 100 completed survey questionnaires, 50 from Chinese participants, 50 from European participants. Interviews were held with 12 of the latter and eight of the former. See also:

• Ng, S.H., He A., and Loong, C., 2004 'Tri-generational family conversations: Communication accommodation and brokering', British Journal of Social Psychology, 43, 3, 449-464 [F15].

• Ng, S.H. and He, A., 2004 'Code-switching in tri-generational family conversations among Chinese immigrants in New Zealand', Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 23, 1, 28.

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, family - language, Asian, Chinese, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews

F17. Paterson, J., Pryor, J. and Field, J., 1994 'Ethnicity and parent-adolescent relations', Journal of Intercultural Studies, 15, 1, 3-13.

Research focus/aims: To consider how age group, gender, family composition and ethnicity influence adolescents' perceptions of their affective relationships with their parents and friends.

Participants: Participants (n=493) were drawn from schools and tertiary institutions from different locations in Auckland. They identified themselves as belonging to the following ethnic groups: Pakeha/European (78 percent), Maori (11 percent), Pacific Island (11 percent).

Key findings/outcomes: Ethnicity was not the main focus of this study and future research on this is needed. Results suggest some differences in the ways in which Pacific young people relate to their parents compared with Pakeha or Maori young people, and these differences may be due to distinct parenting and family interaction styles. Pacific young people, for example, appear to be less likely than those in the other two groups to seek support from their mothers, but differences in support seeking behaviour in relation to fathers, siblings or other relations were not evident. The authors note the limitations of the research tools used for measuring this and suggest further research with tools that are more specifically designed to address ethnicity.

Scope: A non-probability sampling method was used in order to obtain approximately equal numbers of younger and older adolescents. Gender, family and cultural subgroups were matched. A self report questionnaire was used in the quantitative phase of the study. The qualitative phase of the study (n=100) utilised individual interviews, but there was only one Pacific volunteer for this.

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, identity - peer relationships, Pacific, Maori, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

F18. Pilkington, J., 1990 'Mixed marriages and language maintenance: Some Samoan data', Wellington Working Papers in Linguistics, 1, 28-36.

Research focus/aims: To compare proficiency in Samoan among children whose parents are both Samoan with proficiency where only one parent is Samoan.

Participants: Eleven couples (with children) in which at least one partner was Samoan.

Key findings/outcomes: Samoan language proficiency in children is better in families in which both parents are Samoan than in families where only one parent is. The gender of the Samoan parent in these inter-ethnic families made no apparent difference to the language proficiency of their children. A correlation was found between a lack of emphasis on Samoan identity and a lack of language proficiency in Samoan. Language maintenance in inter-ethnic families requires positive attitudes towards speaking Samoan including use of the language in the home. More extensive institutional support would assist in this development.

Scope: Interview questionnaire administered to parents in eleven families. Survey was a modified and reduced version of that used by 'Aipolo and Holmes (1990) [F1]. See also Daly (1990) [F3].

Keywords: family - language, identity - acculturation, Pacific - Samoan, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

F19. Shameem, N., 1994 'The Wellington Indo-Fijians: Language shift among teenage new immigrants', Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 15, 5, 399-418.

Research focus/aims: Examines language maintenance (of Fiji-Hindi) among adolescent Indo-Fijian new immigrants in Wellington. Explores factors contributing to language shift to English.

Participants: Teenage Indo-Fijian new immigrants (n=53), and their mothers.

Key findings/outcomes: High levels of Fiji-Hindi proficiency were found, but language shift was also found to be underway in this community. Mothers and teenagers showed significant differences in language proficiency in English, Fiji-Hindi and Hindustani. Teenagers showed much greater proficiency in English than their mothers. For mothers, Fiji-Hindi was the dominant language, but for teenagers, English had already become dominant. FH maintenance depended on age, age at time of migration and length of residence in New Zealand.

Scope: Structured interviews with teenagers and their mothers. Additional data on language competence in Fiji-Hindi was obtained from interviewees on 69 teenage and younger members of the households involved. A Fiji-Hindi performance test was administered in 1993. See also:

• For the thesis from which this article was drawn, see Shameem, N., 1995 Hamai log ke boli, Our language: Language shift in an Immigrant Community: The Wellington Indo-Fijians, Applied Linguistics, Victoria University of Wellington. The thesis notes further that additional interviewing of a subset of original participants (n=35) took place in 1993 and showed that, by this time, Fiji-Hindi proficiency was only related to length of residence. Concludes that the language will almost certainly be lost among the New Zealand born Indo-Fijians in Wellington unless a concerted effort is made by this community and the host society to preserve it.

• Shameem, N., 1998 'Validating self-reported language proficiency by testing performance in an immigrant community: The Wellington Indo-Fijians', Language Testing, 15, 1, 86-108.

Keywords: family - language, Indo-Fijian, migrants, overseas born, interviews

F20. Suaalii, T. M. and Mavoa, H., 2001 'Who says yes? Collective and individual framing of Pacific children's consent to, and participation in, research in New Zealand', Childrenz Issues: Journal of the Children's Issues Centre, 5, 1, 39-42.

Research focus/aims: To discuss issues surrounding research participation by Pacific children and young people, focusing in particular on the collective nature of rights and knowledge for this group, and the complexities of giving consent to research involvement in cross cultural contexts. Examines (1) the contexts in which individuals do or do not have an individual right of consent; (2) the implications of the valuing by Pacific peoples of collective knowledge; (3) the significance of shame in parental decisions about whether children should participate in research.

Key findings/outcomes: Observes that children's rights in the research context have been framed in terms of western understandings of individualised ownership of knowledge but this is incongruent with the collective nature of ownership and responsibility among Pacific groups. Thus 'for Maori and Pacific peoples, the right to give consent and to pass on knowledge is enmeshed in collective frameworks where the individual is an integral part of an extended family and wider community' (p.39). Children's right to take part in research is governed by epistemologies of parents and others; in Pacific communities, these rights are linked to responsibilities and statuses within a collective framework. Researchers must take heed of this in designing protocols. Emphasises the importance of consultation during all stages of research design, implementation, interpretation and dissemination.

Scope: Wide ranging discussion drawing on New Zealand and international research.

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, review

F21. Tay, R., 1999 Voices of Asian youth, Christchurch City Council, Christchurch.

Research focus/aims: To identify the issues, concerns and needs of Asian high school students in three communities in Christchurch.

Participants: Asian high school students (n=50), including fee paying students (n=18) from 11 secondary schools; ESOL teachers (n=6) from six of the schools.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Language can be a major barrier to acculturation. (2) Relationships between the City Council and Asian community groups need to be improved. (3) Schools tend to focus sporting activity on traditional 'Kiwi' sports rather than on sporting activities favoured by migrant young people. (4) Asian students are not widely involved in the life of the city.

Recommendations: (1) Screening of students by schools to assess language proficiency and levels of subsequent assistance. (2) More comprehensive ESOL programmes. (3) Appointment of a Youth Co-ordinator in the city to act as a liaison between students, schools, the City Council and Asian community groups, and also to work in schools to promote awareness of Asian cultures and to encourage students to adopt the best of both cultures. (4) Schools should consider making sporting facilities for basketball, badminton, tennis, table tennis and soccer more readily available to students. (5) Improvements to city life for these students would include: a better public transport system; nightlife that is suitable for teenagers; the operation of shopping malls and food stalls later into the night; the development of a theme park and the hosting of more international fairs and cultural events.

Scope: Small scale exploratory study. Analyses demographic data drawn from Statistics New Zealand and from community boards, the City Council and local high schools in the selected areas. Focus groups of 6-10 students were organised according to country of origin: (i) China, Hong Kong and Taiwan; (ii) Korea; (iii) Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines. Smaller focus group were organised for students from Japan, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. Interpreters were engaged to assist the discussions. ESOL teachers were interviewed.

Keywords: acculturation, services, education - language, Asian, Chinese, Taiwanese, Hong Kong, Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, migrants, overseas born, interviews

F22. Vong, C., 2002a 'The impact of migration on the Chinese family', New Zealand Journal of Counselling, 23, 1, 21-24.

Research focus/aims: Discusses the impact of migration stress, cultural transition and the changing nature of family structure and family roles on immigrant Chinese families.

Key findings/outcomes: In relation to young people, argues that children and adolescents often find adaptation easier than their parents do and this can lead to generational conflict in the family in two important ways. Young people may wish to adopt lifestyles and customs common to other young New Zealanders, in conflict with traditionally acceptable behaviour among young Chinese. Further, because young people are often more adept at English than their parents, they often act as interpreters and become responsible for the family's interaction with the wider community. This can produce an apparent inversion of roles which parents may respond to by imposing strict family rules about behaviour.

Scope: Based on reflections on personal experience, and some international research.

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, family - acculturation, Asian - Chinese, migrants, overseas born, reflections on personal experience, review of international literature

F23. Wood, E., 2002 First generation Indian women talk about dating and marriage in New Zealand society, MSocSc, University of Waikato, Hamilton.

Research focus/aims: To examine the attitudes of a group of first generation Indian women to dating and marriage practices.

Participants: Six women, all first generation migrants from India residing in Hamilton.

Key findings/outcomes: Marriage was highly valued, and arranged marriages continued to be the customary form of union although some modernisation in this practice had occurred with children now playing a more substantial role in the decision process. Most participants were open to the idea of dating, and noted that this had become more of an issue with Indian youth. They also noted that dating tended to be regarded in a negative light in traditional Indian society. Dating tended not to be freely discussed within the family. Interracial dating was viewed positively by participants although some expressed concerns with reference to religion. Family conflict over marriage and dating was noted as a feature of some households but it was noted that, in many cases, parents eventually accepted children's decisions: the primary theme of the discussions was that no disagreement was worth losing one's children over.

Scope: In-depth interviews

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, Asian - Indian, migrants, overseas born, interviews

Crime

F24. Eggleston, E., 2000 'New Zealand youth gangs: Key findings and recommendations from an urban ethnography', Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, 14, 148-163.

Research focus/aims: To understand the experience of young people in gangs in New Zealand

Participants: Young people (n=55) aged 11-24 years involved in gangs. Participants identified variously as Maori, Pakeha, Tongan, Fijian, Niuean, Cook Island, Tokelauan, Samoan. All but two participants were male.

Key findings/outcomes: Themes that emerged: (1) Belonging: the importance of affiliation and friendship. (2) Vulnerability: gangs were seen as protective although joining a gang increased the likelihood of needing protection. (3) Gender: the gangs were exclusively male but did have female affiliates who were 'looked after' as supporters but not members of the gang. (4) 'Trouble' involving illegal activity. Argues that most youth gangs are not as ruthless as their talk suggests. Suggests future research should look at the difference between 'talking the talk' and 'walking the walk'; at the rhetoric of joining a gang to support one's culture; at the differences between 'wannabe' gangs and those that are well established and actively criminal. Suggests such research could provide the basis for community interventions.

Recommendations: Offers two suggests for interventions: (1) Create fora where young men can explore and experience emotions that are associated with being an adolescent (fear, isolation, hurt etc) but are culturally downplayed as feminine. (2) Resource youth driven initiatives that promote a pro-social peer culture.

Scope: Ethnography, including interviews and participant observations.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, crime - gangs, Maori, Pakeha, Pacific - Tongan, Fijian, Niuean, Cook Island, Tokelauan, Samoan, New Zealand born, interviews, ethnography

F25. Maxwell, G., Robertson, J., Kingi, V., Morris, A. and Cunningham C., 2004 Achieving effective outcomes in youth justice, Ministry of Social Development, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To identify factors associated with effective outcomes in the youth justice system. To assess the extent to which the goals of the Children, Young Persons and their Families Act 1989 were being met.

Participants: Youth justice co-ordinators (n=24), a representative sample of young people involved in Family Group Conferences (n=1003) facilitated by the co-ordinators in the sample. Approximately one-third were Maori, one-third Pakeha and 15 percent were Pacific young people.

Key findings/outcomes: Results for young Pacific people: this group offended at twice the rate of Pakeha and half the rate of Maori. They come before the Youth Court more often than Pakeha counterparts for similar offending, but their outcomes are not noticeably different from those of Pakeha once they have been through the Youth Court or a FGC. Their offending is likely to be more serious, however. Success in FGCs was most likely when (1) The family was engaged with the process, was treated with respect and was acknowledged in a manner that went beyond tokenism. (2) Pacific participants felt they were crucial to the process rather than simply being provided with a chance to take part. (3) They were able to take charge of decisions resulting from an FGC rather than professionals making decisions for them. (4) They were spoken to respectfully in language they could understand. (5) They were encouraged to provide support and forgiveness to their young people. (6) It is crucial that those for whom English is a second language are able to understand the process. (7) Calls for further research to increase understanding about how young people from specific Pacific cultures experience life in New Zealand.

Scope: Interviews were held with co-ordinators and with over half of the young people. Data on the whole sample of young people was drawn from the criminal justice system.

Keywords: crime - Family Group Conferences, crime - Youth Court, Pacific, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, interviews, national data

F26. Ministry of Social Development, 2002 Report of the Ministerial Taskforce on youth offending, Ministry of Social Development, Ministry of Justice, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To develop a co-ordinated package of initiatives for improving practices, processes and inter-agency co-ordination to reduce youth crime.

Participants: Key stakeholders in the youth justice sector including Child, Youth and Family, Police Youth Aid, government and community representatives (24 meetings around New Zealand).

Key findings/outcomes: (1) There is strong support for the current legislative basis for youth justice, and for Family Group Conferences in particular. (2) Clearer leadership in the sector is needed. (3) Better support and resourcing for professionals in CYP and Police Youth Aid is needed. (4) Better mechanisms are needed to ensure interagency collaboration. (5) Funding and range of current programmes is inadequate, especially to meet the needs of the hardest-end offenders. (6) A sentencing option beyond Supervision with Residence is needed for the latter group. (7) There are high rates of offending among young Maori. (8) Pacific young people are over-represented in offences involving violence. (9) A lack of detailed statistical information is inhibiting planning.

Scope: Stakeholder and community consultation through face to face meetings.

Keywords: crime - Family Group Conferences, crime - Youth Court, Pacific, Migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, interviews

F27. Ministry of Social Development, 2006 From wannabes to youth offenders: Youth gangs in Counties Manukau, Ministry of Social Development, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To understand the nature of youth gangs in Counties Manukau, their extent and impact; to assess factors that may have contributed to their emergence; to identify services available to young people in the area; to identify possible models of intervention.

Participants: Social service agency staff, school principals, church ministers, community representatives with an interest in youth, government agency staff (Police, Ministries of Education, Justice, Youth Development, Social Development, Department of Child, Youth and Family, current and former youth gang members, non-gang youth (numbers unspecified).

Key findings/outcomes: Youth gangs should be viewed as one outcome of wider social problems impacting on youth in Counties Manukau including: (1) Economic deprivation. (2) The loss of extended family/parental support networks (for immigrants from the Pacific, and in rural-urban migration among Maori). (3) Family stresses such as parents working multiple jobs, financial pressures, lack of engagement with services. (4) Gangs offer a proxy family unit as well as a source of friendship, status, protection, social activity, material gain and for some, a chance to become associated with adult gangs. (5) Rates for non-involvement in school among those under 16 years are higher in this area than elsewhere in New Zealand.

Recommendations: Suggestions for interventions: (1) Local programme development. (2) Long-term funding in the community. (3) Funding related eligibility criteria should be broadened beyond age/individual to a more whanau-oriented system. (4) Improved infrastructural support. (5) Improved interagency collaboration. (6) Increased resources. (7) Youth specific responses. (8) Parental engagement. (9) Increased service provision. (10) Development of agreements between community, government and adult gangs to stop the latter recruiting youth. (11) Increased community police presence. (12) Work opportunities for youth and assistance to help them remain in school.

Scope: An ethnographic approach was taken.

This report led to: Auckland Youth Support Network (2006) Improving Outcomes for Young People in Counties Manukau: Plan of Action, Ministry of Social Development, Wellington.

Keywords: crime - gangs, family - intergenerational relationships, identity - peer relationships, Pacific, migrants, New Zealand born, ethnography

F28. Singh, D. and White, C., 2000 Rapua Te Huarahi Tika: Searching for solutions, Ministry of Youth Affairs, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: (1) To identify strategies that are effective and those that are not in reducing re-offending among indigenous and ethnic minority youth. (2) To identify key elements of successful interventions. (3) To identify positive and negative impacts of different interventions and consider whether these are likely to affect offence rates indirectly.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Research that systematically evaluates the effectiveness of culturally specific programmes is rare. (2) Interventions that may be effective include social and cognitive skills training, family training, cultural initiatives, family group conferences, multi-systemic therapy, habilitation programmes, peer retreats and community initiatives. (3) Other initiatives that may be effective but about which more research is needed include: outdoor activities, mentoring, healing circles, restorative justice, vocational skills/work placement. (4) Less effective interventions include: boot camps, shock incarceration, curfews, strengthening Police-youth relationships, programmes based on rigid correctional models. (5) Four key characteristics of effective programmes are: (i) a holistic approach incorporating different strategies, (ii) involving significant others, e.g. family and community, (iii) staff who are sensitive, culturally appropriate and with whom youth identify, (iv) incorporation and emphasis of cultural material. (6) Other factors for effective interventions are similar to those identified for mainstream programmes. (7) The literature on interventions for Pacific peoples is very sparse. More research is needed.

Recommendations: Suggestions for successful strategies include: (1) Recognition of the identity conflicts of New Zealand born Pacific youth. (2) Family involvement. (3) Collective support networks. (4) Interactive group processes. (5) Separate programmes for men and women. (6) Important to recognise the specificity of each Pacific culture.

Scope: Review of New Zealand and international literature.

Keywords: crime, family, Pacific, migrants, New Zealand born, review

F29. Thake, G., 1996 Sex, age, ethnic and group differences in young people's perceptions of youth crime, punishment, discipline and community issues, Department of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To investigate the perceptions of social issues, problems and relationships to crime, the community and punishment held by young people within a central Auckland area. (Abstract only accessed.)

Participants: Young people (n=90) aged 10-14 years including 53 police community youth group members and 37 control groups participants, both male and female and from a range of ethnic groups (not specified in the abstract).

Key findings/outcomes: Most participants were dissatisfied with community support and most perceived community issues and related problems as contributing to youth crime. Younger children indicated greater enjoyment and benefits (than older children) in participating in the police community youth group programme aimed at alleviating youth crime. Ethnic group differences (unspecified in the abstract) were found in perceptions about community issues, acceptable behaviour and social misdemeanours.

Scope: Questionnaire survey on social misdemeanours and their punishment, perceived community problems, elected punishment responses for social and legal offences.

Keywords: crime, services, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, survey

Education and employment

This section lists research that relates to the first two of the Settlement Strategy goals: that "migrants, refugees and their families are able to obtain employment appropriate to their qualifications and skills" and "to become confident using English in a New Zealand setting, or be able to access appropriate language support". For young people, the research relating to these goals is overwhelmingly concerned with education, and most of the references listed in this section have come from research undertaken within the educational community since the 1970s.

Because of the large amount of material, these references have been split into subsections. This split is somewhat artificial, particularly in relation to the two largest subsections - language and learning styles - which categorise material according to the primary emphasis of each piece of research. As Barnard (1998 [E2]) points out, in the learning experiences of young refugees and migrants, there is a very close relationship between the acquisition of language competency and the environment of cultural understanding in which this takes place. Readers are encouraged to bear this in mind when considering the references in this section. A third subsection lists education references that do not fit neatly elsewhere. The final subsection - employment- lists the few references found that are concerned with employment among young migrants and refugees. These are either demographic analyses or they examine the employment aspirations, rather than the employment experiences, of these groups.

Education - language

E1. Atkinson, A., 1992 Non-English speaking background students in New Zealand schools. Data Management Section, Ministry of Education, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To summarise and analyse information collected from schools by the Ministry of Education regarding NESB students' English speaking ability, their immigration category and their length of residency.

Data: Statistics on NESB students by category, class level, ethnic group and residency (by Ministry of Education district) as at March 1992.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Total NESB students: 45194, two-thirds of whom were in Auckland schools. (2) Nearly one-third had adequate oral English skills but required assistance to develop reading and writing skills. (3) About one-third required no additional support. (4) Only 3 percent had no English language competence. (5) Total number needing support of some kind: 31,537, of whom about one-third were at secondary school and two-thirds at primary school. This total is nearly 5 percent of the New Zealand school population. (6) Over one-half (55 percent) of NESB students were Pacific Islanders (25,105 students out of a total Pacific student population in New Zealand of about 44,000). For nearly 57 percent of these Pacific students, English was not the dominant language spoken at home, and just under one half of this group were New Zealand born. (7) Nearly 6,000 (13 percent) students were the children of business migrants, while 7.5 percent were the children of refugees or those who came to New Zealand under the reunification scheme.

Scope: Nation-wide statistics.

Keywords: education - ESOL, Pacific, Asian, migrants, refugees, overseas born, New Zealand born, national data

E2. Barnard, R., 1998 'Non-English speaking background learners in New Zealand schools', New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 33, 1, 107-114.

Research focus/aims: To review the report by Kennedy and Dewar (1997 [E19]) on programmes and support for NESB students in New Zealand secondary schools.

Key findings/outcomes: Considers that the report provides useful information and practical guidelines for assisting NESB students. Argues, however, that it misses a key issue: namely that while language support is important, greater intercultural awareness is essential - on the part of schools (both staff and other students) and in school curricula. Suggests the formal re-identification of students away from deficit acronyms such as NESB, LEP, ESL, towards terms such as 'bilingual learner'. Calls for research into the learning contexts of these students in order for curricula to be designed, evaluated and improved. This may include research in the field of ESOL, but should also address the means by which language and culture are transmitted and received in classrooms and throughout the school system. Calls for a national languages policy.

Scope: Essay review. See also Kennedy and Dewar (1997 [E19]).

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - acculturation, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, overseas born, New Zealand born, literature review

E3. Barnard, R., 2001 'A survey of the regular classroom teacher's perspective of NESB students in Hamilton secondary schools', Many Voices, 17, 21-25.

Research focus/aims: Uses Johnston's (1999) survey on regular (non- ESOL) teachers' perceptions of NESB students.

Participants: Teachers in ten secondary schools in Hamilton.

Key findings/outcomes: Teachers lack techniques and strategies to teach NESB students effectively in their subject areas. This leads to frustration and concern among teachers about how time-intensive these students can be. As with Johnston's study, teachers thought language development was the domain of the ESOL teacher. There is a significant need for professional development programmes for teachers (both pre-service and in service) to help them develop ways to help their NESB students. School administrators need to facilitate communication systems among teachers, between teachers and ESOL specialists, and between schools and NESB communities.

Scope: Survey of 55 teachers from eight state and two private secondary schools.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - secondary, education - teachers, survey

E4. Beale, E., 2000 'ICT and collaborative writing in an ESOL classroom', Many Voices, 16, 4-7.

Research focus/aims: The use of information and communication technologies in an ESOL classroom; asks what communication strategies students used, what the role of the teacher was, and how interaction changed during the use of ICT.

Participants: NESB students in a senior secondary school ESOL class.

Key findings/outcomes: Students used ICT, particularly computing, in a collaborative writing task that required interpersonal listening and speaking skills, including negotiating meaning, improving fluency in English, requesting repetition and clarification, working with specific language structures and correcting errors. This proved difficult for some students for whom risk-taking in the classroom (e.g. the teacher urging them to 'just try things') was not a comfortable or familiar experience. The teacher had an important role as facilitator, and students gradually learned not to rely on the teacher for all instruction. Overall, the process helped in the development of language and social skills, as well as in learning how to use a computer.

Scope: A small scale in-depth study involving participant observation as well as filming the class in action.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, overseas born, New Zealand born, participant observation

E5. Bedford, J., 2003 'Washback - the effect of assessment on ESOL teaching and learning', Many Voices, 21, 19-23.

Research focus/aims: To examine the effects (positive and negative) of assessment on teaching and learning in Year 11 ESOL classes following implementation of NCEA in 2002. In particular, has the introduction of NCEA changed the way ESOL teachers plan and teach? What advantages/disadvantages result from changing to standards based assessment and what effect has this change had on teachers and learner?

Participants: ESOL teachers from state, private and integrated schools, and one student.

Key findings/outcomes: Evidence of positive effects: student motivation to gain credits, recognition of ESOL as a subject, and more focused students. Negative effects: imbalance of programme focus (e.g. rote learning to pass assessments rather than learning relevant skills), assessment overload, professional confusion. Implications: standards should be assessment tools, not the focus of teaching; teachers need to access good assessment models; careful choice of standards for literacy requirements is needed. It is important that teachers explain NCEA requirements clearly to students. Positive results emerged from classes where unit standards were well integrated into the programme and where teaching focused on language learning in context.

Scope: Survey questionnaire sent to ESOL teachers in Auckland and Northland. Response rate not stated. One NESB student interviewed.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - assessment, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, New Zealand born, overseas born, survey

E6. Bedford, J., 2005 'Size does matter: Giving effective feedback on academic writing', Many Voices, 24, 6-9.

Research focus/aims: What are the most effective ways of engaging ESOL students in taking up oral feedback on classwork from teachers and peers?

Participants: Students in two Year 12 ESOL classes working on the NCEA level 2 writing unit standard 8825.

Key findings/outcomes: There is value in asking students about their feedback preferences (oral, written, teacher, peer) as this helps them to take ownership of the feedback. Students in this study preferred a mix of written and oral feedback, and of peer and teacher feedback. Oral feedback, in particular, helped students to engage in processing feedback through interaction and negotiation with teachers and peers. Class size is important in this, however, as in small classes, teachers are able to give oral feedback more effectively that in large classes where one-on-one discussions can be difficult and care needs to be taken to respect student privacy. Peer feedback needs to be carefully structured so that students understand what is needed. This can be particularly effective in helping students become less dependent on teachers.

Scope: Based on an MA research project. Questionnaires and interviews involving 11 students in one class and 27 in another.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews, survey

E7. Brown, G. M. E., 1995 Bilingual literacy and academic success among Samoan born students in a New Zealand secondary school. A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Education at Massey University, Palmerston North.

Research focus/aims: To examine bilingual secondary school students' literacy abilities and practices in the school setting by looking at first language reading behaviour among Samoan bilingual students in English immersion education in New Zealand.

Participants: Secondary school students: Samoan born (n=29) and New Zealand born (n=20).

Key findings/outcomes: (1) High importance is given to Samoan language reading, but little time is spent actually reading in that language. (2) Both groups performed better on English cloze tests than Samoan. (3) New Zealand born students read better in English and worse in Samoan than their immigrant peers. (4) A strong inverse correlation was found between length of residence and reading ability in Samoan and English. The longer the Samoan born students lived in either country, the better their ability in the language of that country and the weaker their ability in the other language. These correlations were not found for the New Zealand born students.

Scope: Data were gathered through reading tests, school records of academic achievement, demographic details obtained from a questionnaire administered to students.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - bilingualism, education - secondary, Samoan, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey, literacy test

E8. Cameron, S. and Simpson, J., 2002 'ESOL teachers' perspectives on the provision for NESB students in Hamilton and Auckland secondary schools', Many Voices, 19, 16-23.

Research focus/aims: Further follow up to studies by Johnston (1999) and Barnard (2001), interviewing ESOL teachers about their role, their response to the findings of the earlier studies and their experience of systems in their schools for assisting NESB students.

Participants: ESOL teachers in Hamilton and Auckland.

Key findings/outcomes: Schools are experiencing an enormous growth in NESB students, and this is putting pressure on teachers and resources. In Hamilton, schools are providing ESOL support classes, teacher aide assistance, special tuition for those not coping in mainstream classrooms. In Auckland, multilevel systems are operating including foundation classes in subject areas, ESOL support classes, IELTS preparation classes. More teachers are taking advantage of professional development, and in Auckland, a 'whole-school' approach is increasingly evident in which teachers within schools liaise with each other and share ideas and resources.

Scope: In-depth interviews with five ESOL teachers in each city.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - secondary, education - teachers, survey

E9. Carroll, M., 1991 'Vocabulary, knowledge and schooling: A study of the vocabulary knowledge of students from other language backgrounds and the implications for schooling', English in Aotearoa, 14, 9-14.

Research focus/aims: Assessment of gap in vocabulary knowledge between native and non-native speakers of English.

Participants: 138 Form 4 (Year 10) girls in Wellington schools.

Key findings/outcomes: Gap widens for words less frequently used; ESL students are learning words at all levels of difficulty; many New Zealand born students from NESB scored poorly; within this latter group, Indian and Asian girls scored more highly than Pacific girls. Argues that initial schooling in the languages spoken at home may help with subsequent schooling in English.

Scope: Survey highlights the educational needs of a key group: New Zealand born students for whom English is not a first language. See also:

• Carroll, M., 1991 'Vocabulary knowledge and schooling: Some issues', Many Voices, 1, 16-17.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - bilingualism, education - secondary, Pacific, Indian, Asian, migrants, refugees, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

E10. Chai, C.O.L., 1990 Bilingual peer tutoring: An exploratory study, Department of Education, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To examine the effectiveness of bilingual and monolingual tutors in improving the reading comprehension of secondary age ESOL students.

Participants: Tutors (sixth and seventh form students) and their students (fourth form students who are recent immigrants).

Key findings/outcomes: Reading comprehension improved as a result of tutoring. Some support was indicated for the effectiveness of bilingual peer tutoring.

Scope: Tutors used a combination of teaching strategies with three bilingual paired subjects and four monolingually paired subjects. Success was measured by improvements on comprehension questions.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - bilingualism, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, overseas born, New Zealand born, case study

E11. Davey, S., 2002 'Interaction with text: A study of teachers' mediation of materials in mainstream and ESOL secondary school classrooms', Many Voices, 20, 23-25.

Research focus/aims: how do teachers address the language learning needs of NESB students through mediating texts? How does a teacher's language contribute to the language learning of these students?

Participants: Teachers and students in five Taranaki secondary schools.

Key findings/outcomes: Classrooms and classroom language need to be less teacher-dominated, with students adopting a more active role; teachers need to acknowledge their role as language teachers whatever their subject area; use of 'real life' materials in class would help students' confidence outside the classroom; teachers should use more questioning that requires students to think for themselves and so develop critical thinking skills. Offers a range of practical suggestions for teachers on these recommendations.

Scope: Participant observation of classroom practice in eighty lessons over five weeks.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, overseas born, New Zealand born, participant observation

E12. Edwards, S. L., 1994 ESL learners reading in mainstream classrooms: Three case studies, MA Applied Linguistics, University of Waikato, Hamilton.

Research focus/aims: To investigate the effects of placing students of English as a second language in mainstream classrooms by examining the match between these learners and some of the texts they encounter in mainstream classrooms; to understand the influence of the text, the learner and the classroom on this match.

Participants: Three case studies of ESL learners and their teachers in secondary school classrooms.

Key findings/outcomes: A mismatch was identified between learners and the texts used in mainstream classes in all three cases. Teachers were generally not well aware of the difficulties that ESL students faced in reading these texts. Argues that classroom practices that fail to focus on reading instruction for ESL learners may make their task of learning a new language at the same time as learning a new subject content extremely difficult. Argues further that, if ESL students continue to be mainstreamed, then subject teachers should be actively helped to become more aware of the reading problems experienced by these students.

Scope: Case study approach using data gathered from classroom observations, analysis of classroom reading texts, interviews with ESL students and written questionnaires completed by their teachers.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, overseas born, New Zealand born, case study

E13. Franken, M. and Haslett, S.J., 1999 'Quantifying the effect of peer interaction on second language students' written argument texts', New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 34, 2, 281-295.

Research focus/aims: To investigate the effects of collaborative work on the writing of argument texts by high school students for whom English is a second language.

Participants: NESB students in a mixed-sex sixth form class at an Auckland high school (n=20).

Key findings/outcomes: Contrary to expectations, positive effects were found for grammatical accuracy and complexity among those working alone. This suggests that there may be constraints on language performance when students shift from speaking to writing, that is, that the benefits of interaction in the case of speaking (increased fluency, accuracy, complexity) do not necessarily transfer to writing tasks.

Scope: The study involved two parallel groups: in one, students were given the opportunity to work in pairs; in the other, they had little or no opportunity to do this. The study fitted into an academic skills programme designed to prepare students for the curriculum and for the International English Language Test. It ran over six weeks.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, overseas born, New Zealand born, case study

E14. Franken, M. P. and McComish, J., 2003, Improving English language outcomes for students receiving ESOL services in New Zealand schools, with a particular focus on new immigrants, New Zealand Ministry of Education Research Division, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To investigate the ways in which schools make use of targeted ESOL funding. Addresses an extensive range of research questions about the use of this funding and about good practice for teaching and learning for NESB students. Includes an analysis of demographic trends with respect to NESB students, and a literature review on good practice.

Participants: School staff associated with ESOL provision or with the teaching of NESB students (n=23 schools). On average, four staff were interviewed in each school. Ministry of Education verification reports (on school processes with regard to ESOL funding) were also used (n= 126 primary schools, 16 intermediate schools, 46 secondary schools).

Key findings/outcomes: A very wide range of findings is listed. Conclusions resulting from these findings include: (1) ESOL provision is a demanding area of work requiring expertise from schools and teachers. Two key systemic gaps are the lack of a New Zealand Language Policy and the lack of curriculum guidelines for ESOL provision. Addressing these gaps would enable a more systemic approach in which consistent links could be developed throughout the education sector in relation to ESOL; models of provision based on best practice could be implemented through the curriculum; the development of more resources for NESB students could be linked to essential learning areas of the curriculum; greater attention would be paid to language acquisition by organisations that play a role in schools (ERO for example). (2) The pool of staff qualified in ESOL provision needs to be enlarged and their levels of expertise increased. This should be addressed at pre-service, in-service and post-graduate levels and should involve school management, teachers and teacher aides. (3) Better information on NESB students is needed. This could include systematic tracking of students through their school careers as well as more research on how well these students make the transition to tertiary education.

Scope: A stratified sample of schools was used in order to access schools with a range of selected characteristics (relating to size, decile, region, composition of student roll).

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - school organisation, migrants, refugees, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews, school data

E15. Fry, J., 2004 'Supplement to 'Wrestling with research: Helping NESB students with the research demands of NCEA'', Many Voices, 22, 21-23.

Research focus/aims: To address the low achievement rates of some ESOL students in NCEA research assessments.

Participants: ESOL students doing Level 1 NCEA, teachers.

Key findings/outcomes: The main finding from students was that they had difficulty with language. This included problems with understanding the standards and activities required, as well as problems with the research content of any project. Teachers reported that the main areas of difficulty for students were in selecting, analysing, organising and synthesising material. Students from educational backgrounds where research skills are not taught also experienced difficulties understanding the research process required. Suggests teachers of different subjects work together to help students understand research techniques common to different subject areas; bilingual teacher aides should have some training in research processes; research topics that reflect prior knowledge would reduce the language load on students; some research assessments could be done in ESOL classes.

Scope: Small scale study. Interviews with teachers and students (numbers not stated). Achievement of 48 students was studied.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - assessment, education - secondary, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, case study

E16. Henderson, A., 1988 'Report on a study of the language needs of Southeast Asian refugees in New Zealand', New Settlers and Multicultural Education Issues, 5, 3, 28-32.

Research focus/aims: To assess the language needs of the Southeast Asian refugee population and to analyse the language provisions that have been made available to meet the needs of this population.

Participants: Survey sample involved 230 cases (individuals through to family groups of up to eleven people) from a range of South East Asian countries, across all age groups, but 80 percent were under 35 years on arrival in New Zealand.

Key findings/outcomes: Provides a demographic profile of this population, including educational backgrounds, occupations, language backgrounds, years in refugee camp, resettlement patterns. A smaller regional subsample included survey of young adults from Cambodia and Vietnam. Student responses stressed the importance of their mother tongue, and all wanted to speak it well by learning it either at home or at school. Students identified technical school subjects as easier than English-intensive subjects.

Scope: Large scale study involving national sample of 785 refugees, smaller regional subsample, documentary analysis of government records, survey of individuals and institutions involved in provision of language education, face to face interviews with providers and recipients of language education.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - bilingualism, South-East Asian, refugees, survey, interviews, documents

E17. Hunkin, G.A.L., 1987 'Being Samoan means knowing my language', New Settlers and Multicultural Education Issues, 4, 3, 28-35.

Research focus/aims: To assess the significance of being able to speak Samoan among Samoan university students.

Participants: Samoan university students (majority were New Zealand born).

Key findings/outcomes: All respondents regarded being able to speak Samoan as crucial to identity and self-esteem, but only one student in the sample could speak the language fluently. Concern was expressed that loss of cultural practices would lead to loss of the language and vice versa.

Scope: Brief report citing a pilot study conducted among Samoan students at Auckland University. Methodological details not given.

Keywords: education - language, education - bilingualism, education - tertiary, identity, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born.

E18. Johnston, M., 1999 'The regular classroom teacher's perspective of non-English-speaking-background students in secondary schools', Many Voices, 14, 19-24.

Research focus/aims: To identify the needs of mainstream (not specialist ESOL) teachers of NESB students in the Canterbury-Nelson region.

Participants: Teachers in secondary schools in the Canterbury-Nelson region.

Key findings/outcomes: Teachers showed significant signs of frustration in relation to NESB students in their classes. Most thought that the ESOL teacher in the school had sole responsibility for assisting NESB students with English language skills. Suggests a need for pre-service and in-service training for regular classroom teachers in relation to the needs of these students. Argues that all teachers have a responsibility to address barriers to learning for NESB students. Administrators of schools should see the needs of NESB students as 'a whole school responsibility'.

Scope: Surveyed 59 teachers in fifteen secondary schools (eight co-educational, seven single-sex).

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - secondary, education - teachers, survey

E19. Kennedy, S. and Dewar, S., 1997 Non-English-speaking background students: A study of programmes and support in New Zealand schools, Ministry of Education Research and International Section Research Unit, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To identify schools' experiences of the following: (1) factors that influence NESB students' English language proficiency; (2) criteria used to categorise students according to this proficiency; (3) programmes and resources used to support NESB students; (4) areas of need for effective support of NESB students; (5) use of resources additional to ESOL funding for supporting NESB students.

Participants: Staff (n=52) and trustees (n=2) in a range of primary, intermediate and secondary schools (n=14) in Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch, which had been identified as having 'good practices' in relation to programmes and support for NESB students.

Key findings/outcomes: Effective programmes and support involve: (1) Inclusive school policy. (2) Commitment by the school to welcome NESB students and families. (3) Support for teachers of NESB students from the principal and senior staff. (4) An ESOL co-ordinator. (5) Teachers committed to meeting NESB students' needs. (6) Teachers with specific training/experience in working with NESB students. (7) Staff who are knowledgeable about support services beyond the school and are ready to act on this knowledge. (8) Policy to enlist help from interpreters/support people. (9) Practical in-class teacher support. (10) Policy to provide students with out-of-class support and one-to-one instruction as required. (11) Commitment to helping students maintain/foster their first language. (12) Employment of bilingual/multilingual teachers and aides where possible. (13) Access to appropriate and sufficient materials. (14) Commitment to share resources, ideas and experience with other schools. (15) Policy of integrating NESB students into regular classrooms as soon as possible. (16) Commitment from all staff to learning about NESB students' backgrounds and promoting cultural understanding throughout the school. (17) Commitment to open and on-going communication with NESB families. (18) Commitment to involving parents in the school and in their children's education. Participants observed that increased resourcing was needed in order to employ more staff to provide both in-class and out-of-class teaching support, and for longer periods, including more bilingual staff. Resourcing for more materials and increased access to outside support agencies was also called for.

Scope: An exploratory, qualitative study involving interviews with staff from a diverse range of schools, some of which catered mainly for Pacific NESB students (both New Zealand born and Island born), others catered mainly for Asian NESB students, and some for a more diverse range of migrant young people. The proportion of students for whom ESOL funding was available ranged from 15 percent to 80 percent of school rolls. See Barnard 1998 [E2] for a review of this study.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - school organisation, education - intermediate, education - secondary, education - teachers, refugees, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, interviews

E20. Laing, P., 1976 Samoan children in a New Zealand secondary school; a semiological study of social communication. Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology at Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To investigate the social communications of Samoan students in a New Zealand secondary school in order to identify the key concepts that hinder the growth of cultural competence and result in miscommunication. (Abstract only accessed).

Participants: Samoan young people (n=15), staff at the secondary school.

Key findings/outcomes: Not stated in abstract.

Scope: Ethnography including a survey questionnaire of teachers, visits to students' homes, discussions and involvement in activity with the students.

Keywords: education - language, education - learning styles, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, ethnography

E21. Lawson, O., 1992 'The status of English for speakers of other languages in New Zealand secondary schools', Many Voices, 2, 12-14.

Research focus/aims: Looks at the improving status accorded ESOL teaching in schools; addresses some of the problems faced by ESOL teachers, e.g. poor resources, being expected to supervise students who may have behaviour problems but are not genuine ESOL students; stigma faced by ESOL students.

Key findings/outcomes: Gives an example of a successful ESOL unit in a school.

Scope: Personal reflection on experience of teaching ESOL in schools.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - secondary, education - teachers, education - school organisation, reflection on professional practice

E22. Major, J., 2005 'Teacher education for cultural diversity: online and at a distance', Journal of Distance Learning, 9, 1, 15-26.

Research focus/aims: To discuss the extent to which online technologies can be used effectively in pre-service teacher education that will equip new teachers for work in multicultural classrooms. Gives a brief review of the literature on the characteristics of effective teacher education for diversity and examines how these can be fostered through online teacher education.

Participants: Students in 'Language and Culture in the Classroom', a course in teacher education that incorporates online discussion forums.

Key findings/outcomes: Advantages of the course included opportunities for students to 'interact, critique ideas, reflect, share stories, explore strategies and build relationships' in ways that were strongly student-centred. Disadvantages included the time consuming nature of the online interaction and, in particular, the literacy requirements of this interaction, which favoured students who were confident and competent in written English. The construction of online courses must take this into account in terms of setting realistic requirements and expectations of students.

Scope: Case study of a course involving online elements, and discussion of the international literature on education for diversity.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - tertiary, case study

E23. McCoy, M., 2004 'A structure of substance', Many Voices, 23, 26-28.

Research focus/aims: To help Pasifika and ESOL students in a low decile secondary school to prepare for the academic writing requirements of university.

Participants: ESOL and Pasifika school and university students, university and school staff

Key findings/outcomes: ESOL students needed help with the amount of writing required at university, and with proofreading, listening, note taking and referencing. Pasifika students needed help with producing the academic language required and with the amount of writing required. At university, ESOL students were more likely to ask for help than Pasifika students, who had a high rate of absenteeism from classes. Techniques found to be helpful for school students to prepare them for the writing and language requirements of university were: development of vocabulary; use of information transfer grids to create writing frames. These involved using models and teaching language at word and sentence levels. This scaffolding gave students confidence and led to improved results

Scope: Small scale study, interviews and surveys with participants (numbers not stated).

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - secondary, education - tertiary, Pacific, Asian, migrants, refugees, overseas born, New Zealand born, case study

E24. Middleton, S., 1995 'Nurturing a language learning culture in New Zealand. Resourcing the teaching and learning of English as an additional language - a discussion paper', English in Aotearoa, 26, 50-57.

Research focus/aims: To generate a set of basic principles for policy development in New Zealand around the provision of resources for students for whom English is an Additional Language (EAL).

Data: Draws together international research to examine this issue.

Key findings/outcomes: Outlines eight principles including that provision of additional support to EAL students is an entitlement, cannot be tagged or constrained by individual student characteristics, should be long term, should include New Zealand born members of linguistic minority communities, should recognise the increased demands of higher levels of education, should involve the resourcing of bilingual programmes, should include the employment of bilingual teachers as a high priority, and should include appropriate professional development for all teachers in a school where there are EAL students.

Scope: Brings together findings from an international conference sponsored by the Schools Curriculum and Assessment Authority in the UK.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - school organisation, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, literature review

E25. Ming, T.H., 1998 Reading comprehension and motivation: A comparison of Taiwanese and English speaking secondary school students, Special Education, Auckland University, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To assess levels of reading proficiency and reading motivation in Taiwanese students in an Auckland secondary school.

Participants: Third form Mandarin speaking Taiwanese students (n=23) and New Zealand European students (n=23).

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Standardised test results indicated that reading comprehension difficulties of Taiwanese students seemed due to inadequacies in decoding and in listening comprehension (referring to understanding of spoken English). Questionnaire results indicated that these reading difficulties also influenced reading motivation among these students.

Scope: Data gathered from standardised tests, a questionnaire survey and (for seven students) a one on one interview.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - secondary, Asian, Taiwanese, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, survey, interviews, test data

E26. Nam, K.J. and Lewis, M., 2000 'Language demands in New Zealand secondary school classrooms', Many Voices, 15, 4-7.

Research focus/aims: Investigates the language and learning demands in Year 12 subject classes, and asks how ESOL teachers can use the results in their own schools.

Participants: Year 12 ESOL students in a medium sized secondary school.

Key findings/outcomes: Listening is essential to the learning process for these students; learning in ESOL classes can be enhanced through the use of video clips of subject classes. Recorded segments of mainstream classes can be viewed in ESOL classes to the benefit of students who are able to see a clip more than once; to study the visual (rather than just aural) clues it contains; to hear and become accustomed to the voice of more than one teacher; to understand how oral instructions compare with written instructions, how the teacher signals a change or topic and so forth.

Scope: Twelve classes (covering eleven subjects) in a co-educational school with 785 students, 92 of whom were attending ESOL classes. Each class was visited once and there was a slight bias towards science subjects.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, overseas born, classroom observation

E27. Penton, R., 2002 'Improving achievement of secondary NESB and international students in mainstream classes', Many Voices, 20, 4-7.

Research focus/aims: Evaluation of two professional development courses for mainstream teachers of NESB students.

Participants: Teachers and students in two Auckland secondary schools: a decile 2 multicultural school with most students from NESB, and a private college for international students.

Key findings/outcomes: The principal aim of the courses is that subject teachers help students to develop language and learning through teaching in their subject areas. Evaluation was still in progress at the time of writing.

Scope: Surveys, interviews, participant observation of teaching practice in the schools.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - teachers, education - secondary, surveys, interviews, classroom observation, evaluation

E28. Simunic, D., 2004 'Words speak louder than actions: ESOL students learning science', Many Voices, 23, 21-24.

Research focus/aims: For ESOL students, is science learned more effectively through an experimental or a language focused introduction to a given concept - i.e. should science concepts be taught before students do an experiment or afterwards?

Participants: ESOL students in a Year 11 science class, and science teachers.

Key findings/outcomes: For these ESOL students, science concepts were learned more effectively when experiments followed language focused tasks such as mind-mapping, information transfers, cloze exercises, crossword puzzles, teacher talk, class wide discussion, question sheets and note-taking.

Scope: Survey and test results of 32 students, interviews with four teachers.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, overseas born, survey, tests, interviews

E29. Syme, P., 1995 Intensive English or Mainstream? What is the best provision to make for new learners of English in New Zealand secondary schools?, Education Department Research Report No. 95-1, University of Canterbury, Christchurch.

Research focus/aims: To compare two groups of NESB secondary school students in terms of their adjustment to school and their level of English language development. One group (from Auckland schools) had been mainstreamed since their arrival in New Zealand. The second group had attended an intensive English course at Hagley Community College prior to enrolling in secondary school (where they had been for at least six months prior to the study).

Participants: Senior secondary school students from Taiwan or Korea, who had not attended a private English language school, had started school in New Zealand at least nine months prior to the study, and who had been classified as either having no English language competence or very little. Auckland students (n=45), Christchurch students (n=44).

Key findings/outcomes: Christchurch students were almost universally positive about their first encounter with New Zealand schooling, in contrast to Auckland students, half of whom found this encounter unpleasant, and sometimes traumatic. The Christchurch students gained significantly higher results in the reading comprehension test. The Auckland students appeared to gain no academic advantage from being mainstreamed from the outset.

Recommendations: The establishment of intensive English programmes for secondary level students in each of the four main centres.

Scope: Tested English proficiency in an 80 minute written test, a questionnaire on attitudes and circumstances, and an interview. Reliability checks on researchers' test marking were undertaken. See also:

• Syme, P., 1995 'Providing for new learners of English in New Zealand secondary schools', TESOLANZ Journal, 3, 1-9.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - school organisation, secondary, Asian, Taiwanese, Korean, migrants, overseas born, tests, survey

E30. Taleni, T.L.O., 1998 'Newly migrated Samoan students in New Zealand schools', Many Voices, 12, 21-28.

Research focus/aims: Educational needs and problems of newly migrated Samoan students to New Zealand.

Participants: New Zealand born Samoans and a family newly arrived in New Zealand from Samoa.

Key findings/outcomes: Facility with English is regarded as the key challenge and is a key fear of newly arrived students. Written English is emphasised over oral in education in Samoa, but oral facility with English is vital to learning in New Zealand schools. Problems with English in the New Zealand classroom impede learning. Strong cultural differences between schools in Samoa and in New Zealand were also a challenge, particularly teaching methods and expectations around appropriate student behaviour, e.g. silence and obedience are stressed in Samoan classrooms. This, together with lack of confidence in English, impedes student learning for the new arrivals. Concludes that teachers and schools must be aware of students' educational and cultural needs. An awareness of their cultural values is an important part of this. Young people face a dilemma of 'losing touch with their Samoan selves' as they become more acculturated to New Zealand society.

Scope: In-depth case study of Samoan family newly arrived in New Zealand.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - acculturation, secondary, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, overseas born, case study

E31. Tavener, J. and Glynn, T., 1989 'Peer tutoring of reading as a context for learning English as a second language', Language and Education: An International Journal, 3, 1, 1-11.

Research focus/aims: To examine the effectiveness of bilingual and monolingual tutors as a means of improving the reading comprehension of secondary school students who are learning English as a second language.

Key findings/outcomes: Reading comprehension was enhanced for all subjects, and there was some support for the effectiveness of bilingual peer tutoring.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - bilingualism, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, overseas born, tests

E32. Tringham, K., 2006 'A teaching partnership; Language for learning', New Zealand Education Gazette, 85, 13, 6-9.

Research focus/aims: Profiles an ESOL science programme at Avondale College designed to address the growing numbers of students from refugee or migrant backgrounds who have no training in English and a poor general education. Discusses the involvement of bilingual tutors in the programme.

Key findings/outcomes: Two ESOL science classes are run concurrently (a developing class, and an advanced class) and students are placed in the class that will best suit them. A close working relationship between the head of science and the bilingual tutor in each class has been integral to the success of the programme. As a result of the programme, ESOL students have been moving into mainstream classes more quickly than before.

Scope: Discusses the programme with the head of science and the two bilingual tutors.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - school organisation, education - secondary, refugees, migrants, case study

E33. Turner, E., Jackson-Potter, E. and Jenner, C., 2004 'Framing writing tasks in the EAP context: Strategies for culturally responsive assessment', TESOLANZ Journal, 12, 39-49.

Research focus/aims: Explores the problem that, at tertiary level, course content and related assessment materials can be highly culture specific, effectively shutting out NESB students who lack an understanding of New Zealand culture. Examines whether English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses can address this by enabling students to both learn English academic literacies and express their own cultural knowledge and experience.

Participants: Students in first and second year papers in six programmes in the Arts Faculty at Auckland University of Technology.

Key findings/outcomes: Outlines strategies that have led to a culturally responsive approach to assessment in EAP courses, leading to increased student engagement with EAP writing tasks and in tutorials as well as highly positive feedback from students. Important principles include: recognition that NESB students have already gained academic literacies in their first language and culture; importance of structuring assessment to enable students to show what they know (rather than what they don't); teachers should understand students' own knowledge of discipline specific conventions in order to better introduce them to required academic literacies in New Zealand; writing tasks in EAP classes should reflect the kind of academic writing that students will need in other courses; likewise, assessment should be discipline-relevant; marking criteria must be clear and explicit.

Scope: From an on-going study of under-graduate assessments in the Faculty of Arts at AUT.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - tertiary, migrants, refugees, overseas born, case study

Education - learning styles

E34. Abdi, A., 2003 Enhancing educational access for the Somali community through positive school management and parental involvement, Management Studies, University of Waikato, Hamilton.

Research focus/aims: To improve access to education for the Somali community in Hamilton by documenting approaches practised by a group of schools in working with Somali students and their parents, and by looking at the involvement of parents in their children's education. To identify barriers between Somali families and schools and seek remedies for these.

Participants: School staff (n=16) from six schools, Somali parents (n=11), Somali children (n=23), bilingual Somali individuals working in schools (n=4).

Key findings/outcomes: Positive approaches in some of the schools included: English language support, learning assistance programmes, teacher aides, bilingual Somali support staff, after-school homework centres. Key barriers identified included: lack of participation by Somali youth (especially girls) in education outside the classroom and in some sport; and a reactive rather than proactive attitude to school among parents. Strategies for effective communication between schools and parents are important in order to increase parents' participation in their children's education.

Scope: Semi-structured interviews, focus group of stakeholders. See also Guerin, Guerin, Abdi and Diiriye (2003 [E53]).

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - school organisation, family - intergenerational relationships, Somali, overseas born, refugees, interviews

E35. Anae, M., Anderson, H., Benseman, J. and Coxon, E., 2002 Pacific Peoples and tertiary education: Issues of participation. Final Report prepared for the Ministry of Education, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To investigate barriers (both actual and perceived) to participation in tertiary education and training for Pacific peoples. Particular emphasis was placed on understanding the perceptions of Pacific communities. The report looks at participation patterns, ways in which different tertiary institutions identify and address barriers to participation; the views of Pacific people who have and have not engaged in tertiary education; the views of members of Pacific communities about barriers to participation.

Participants: Key staff from tertiary institutions (n=12); Pacific students or former students including those who had and had not completed their studies (n=30); 8 focus groups of non-participants (n=56); 8 focus groups of Pacific community members. Pacific participants included Samoan, Tongan, Cook Island and Niuean peoples and covered both young adults and older people.

Key findings/outcomes: Key issues identified include: (1) The importance of enabling students and prospective students to hold a positive self image of their ability to succeed. (2) Limited economic resources are a key barrier. (3) Family support is vitally important, and family pressure either to earn money for the family or to pursue avenues of study not chosen by the student are barriers to success. Being required or expected to contribute economically to the family can significantly disadvantage first generation tertiary students in terms of time available for study and attending classes. The differences between the needs of New Zealand born and Island born students emerged as an area in need of attention. (4) Secondary schools were identified as both facilitators and barriers to achievement, particularly in terms of teacher expectations of and attitudes towards Pacific students, career guidance, emphasis on sporting achievement and the quality of academic provision. (5) Private Training Enterprises and Bridging Programmes in Tertiary Education Institutions were favourably commented on, although the accessibility of information about these is an issue. (6) Excellent teaching was identified as essential for success. The presence of Pacific staff was also important to counter the alienation of the institution. Concludes that there is a failure to address the issues of Pacific participation in a systematic and effective manner. Makes a range of recommendations, and outlines three case studies of successful programmes.

Scope: The report makes use of qualitative data (from interviews and focus groups) and quantitative data about participation patterns (analysed for statistical significance nationally across and within institutions). Surveys of tertiary institution policies were also undertaken. The report also includes a literature review of work in this field.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - tertiary, family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, Samoan, Tongan, Cook Island, Niuean, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, interviews, national data

E36. Barnard, R., 1998 'Non-English speaking background learners in New Zealand schools', New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 33, 1, 107-114.

Research focus/aims: To review the report by Kennedy and Dewar (1997 [E19]) on programmes and support for NESB students in New Zealand secondary schools.

Key findings/outcomes: Considers that the report provides useful information and practical guidelines for assisting NESB students. Argues, however, that it misses a key issue: namely that while language support is important, greater intercultural awareness is essential - on the part of schools (both staff and other students) and in school curricula. Suggests the formal re-identification of students away from deficit acronyms such as NESB, LEP, ESL, towards terms such as 'bilingual learner'. Calls for research into the learning contexts of these students in order for curricula to be designed, evaluated and improved. This may include research in the field of ESOL, but should also address the means by which language and culture are transmitted and received in classrooms and throughout the school system. Calls for a national languages policy.

Scope: Essay review. See also Kennedy and Dewar (1997 [E19]).

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - acculturation, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, overseas born, New Zealand born, literature review

E37. Beaver, B. and Tuck, B., 1998 'The adjustment of overseas students at a tertiary institution in New Zealand', New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 33, 2, 167-179.

Research focus/aims: To assess students' concerns and anxieties, their academic task self-efficacy and their preferred learning strategies.

Participants: Students enrolled in certificate and diploma programmes at a tertiary institute in Auckland: Pakeha (n=104), Pacific Island (n=13, with 9 reporting that English was a second language), Asian (n=37, with 36 reporting English as a second language). The majority of Pacific and Asian students reported that they had New Zealand residency.

Key findings/outcomes: Asian students rated themselves as less competent than Pakeha students in study skills particularly in terms of oral and written communication. Asian and Pacific students were more concerned than their Pakeha peers about asking questions in class and approaching a lecturer. Asian students were more concerned about making friends than the others, and Pacific students were more anxious about study than the Pakeha students and rated the provision of extra assistance in learning and studying more highly. Pakeha students placed more value on homogeneous classes (in terms of language ability and work experience) than the other two groups, and they rated having social interaction with other groups less highly than did the Asian or Pacific students.

Scope: Questionnaire administered in class time, and analysed using multi-variate and univariate analysis.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - acculturation, education - tertiary, Pacific, Asian, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

E38. Bell, Z., 2000 Having their say: Six Pacific girls talk about their experiences in a New Zealand secondary school, Second Language Teaching, Massey University, Palmerston North.

Research focus/aims: To explore the factors contributing (both positively and negatively) to the learning situation of Pacific students (excluding factors of socio-economic deprivation and home environments not conducive to study).

Participants: Young Pacific women (n=6) who have come to New Zealand on scholarships to attend secondary school. Participants came from professional family backgrounds, had done well in school in their home nations and were living in a hostel that provided for after-school study. Four were new arrivals to New Zealand, two were in their second year in New Zealand. Their teachers also participated in the research.

Key findings/outcomes: Teachers and the young women themselves tended to underestimate the difficulties that the latter faced. Both groups failed to appreciate the extent of difference in academic expectations in New Zealand compared with their home countries. Teachers were not sufficiently aware of the problems posed by academic English, perhaps because the girls were fluent communicators. Teachers were also misled by the students' quiet classroom behaviour tending to interpret this as passivity or lack of ability. The young women misunderstood 'the rules in play', not wishing to emulate their New Zealand classmates' behaviour but not understanding why these students were achieving better results in class. Argues that changes are required both in teacher delivery and in student study habits. Further argues that factors such as leaving home, culture shock and stress can impede learning. Proposes a model that recognises and addresses constraints on learning. Concludes that, because socio-economic concerns often loom large in the analysis of Pacific students' underachievement, other factors that act as barriers to learning may be overlooked thereby preventing a better understanding of how to address this issue.

Scope: Small scale study using a series of in-depth interviews over the period of a year.

Keywords: education - learning styles, Pacific, overseas born, interviews

E39. Benseman, J., Coxon, E., Anderson, H. and Anae, M., 2006 'Retaining non-traditional students: Lessons learnt from Pasifika students in New Zealand', Higher Education Research and Development, 25, 2, 147-162.

Research focus/aims: To identify factors that influence successful completion of tertiary qualifications by Pasifika students. (Abstract only accessed.)

Participants: Not stated.

Key findings/outcomes: Identifies a range of factors that impede retention, and other factors that facilitate retention. Concludes that, overall, the retention of students by educational institutions is closely related to the success (or otherwise) of the interface between student and institution and between institution and community.

Scope: A large scale study using a diverse range of data sources.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - tertiary, Pacific, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born

E40. Chu, M., 1997 Asian-Chinese students' learning in New Zealand secondary schools, PhD, University of Waikato, Hamilton.

Research focus/aims: To explore the experiences of New Zealand secondary school students who have initially studied in Asian countries.

Participants: New Zealand secondary school students from Taiwan, Hong Kong and mainland China.

Key findings/outcomes: A number of key differences between earlier learning experiences and learning in New Zealand were articulated by students. These differences related to: (1) Learning and teaching approaches. (2) Ways of understanding what learning is. (3) Expectations about what it means to be a student. (4) Roles of teachers. These differences affected students' attitudes to learning. As a result, they have had to make many adjustments to their ways of learning. Argues that traditional Chinese culture influences these students' learning significantly, particularly in terms of their perceptions of 'freedom' and 'responsibility' in their learning. This has implications for how they adjust to the New Zealand schooling system. Proposes an enrichment cross-cultural model of Asian students' learning in place of earlier deficit models. Such a model recognises the value of more than one view of learning. It incorporates the contributions of the traditional culture of these learners and offers another perspective on the apparent paradox of 'the rote learner and the brainy Asian' stereotypes.

Scope: Interviews with students.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - secondary, Chinese, Taiwanese, Hong Kong, mainland China, migrants, overseas born, interviews

E41. Chu, S., 2002 'Adaptation problems of Chinese immigrant students in New Zealand high schools', New Zealand Journal of Counselling, 23, 1, 39-46.

Research focus/aims: Discusses adaptation problems for Chinese students in terms of acculturation, problems faced by teenagers, and school strategies to assist them.

Key findings/outcomes: The acculturation process for migrant teenagers is highly stressful not only because of their encounter with an unfamiliar country and culture but also because of the developmental changes that are occurring for them as they become young adults. Chinese immigrant teenagers must adapt in terms of language, family life, social life and school learning. School strategies to assist with adaptation include: staff development (including becoming familiar with Chinese culture and cultural practices); working with parents (including helping parents to be well informed about the wider New Zealand education system as well as about school policies and procedures); school policies that encourage the inclusion of Chinese parents in the school system (e.g. the PTA) and of Chinese students on Student Executives. The employment of ESOL teachers and of Chinese school counsellors is also an important way in which schools can help these students to adapt. Alternatives to individual counselling might be considered, given the research findings that suggest that Chinese students may regard the seeking of individual counselling as stigmatising. Alternatives to individual counselling may include life-skills programmes, and peer support programmes.

Scope: Draws together international research with personal reflections on the author's own experience as a Chinese student.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - school organisation, education - secondary, health - mental, services, Chinese, overseas born, literature review, personal reflection

E42. Clements, R., Morgan, J. and White, C., 2001 'Kosovar and Burmese refugees at Selwyn College', Many Voices, 18, 19-23.

Research focus/aims: Describes a range of strategies of an Auckland secondary school to assist refugee students.

Participants: Kosovar and Myanmar refugee students.

Key findings/outcomes: Successful strategies included meetings for parents to explain the school system; bilingual assistants to help both in the classroom and in school services; an orientation programme for students; a computing class; extra ESOL teachers; grouping refugee students together for peer support and assistance.

Scope: Analysis of strategies, and survey of Kosovar students.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - secondary, Kosovar, refugees, overseas born, survey

E43. Cochrane, N., Lee, A. and Lees, P., 1993 'Refugee students with no previous schooling', Many Voices, 5, 18-19.

Research focus/aims: Addresses problems faced by refugee young people with little or no schooling.

Participants: Notes particular groups from South East Asia, Assyria, Latin America.

Key findings/outcomes: Experience in refugee camps and in dangerous or insecure situations in their home countries mean that these young people can face significant adjustment problems in New Zealand schools because they have no prior experience of school structures and processes; they have come from traumatic situations; their parents do not understand the school system. Teachers need to be provided with sufficient resources to help these students; bilingual advisors should be made available to schools, parents and teachers.

Scope: Reflection and analysis based on a workshop at the Third National Conference on Community Languages and ESOL at which many participants were ethnic minority community members including ex-refugee parents.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - secondary, South East Asian, Assyrian, Latin American, refugee, workshop

E44. Collins, F.L., 2006 'Making Asian students, making students Asian: The racialisation of export education in Auckland, New Zealand', Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 47, 2.

Research focus/aims: To illustrate how 'the Asian student' has been constructed in the Auckland print media between 2000 and 2004. In particular, to explore how these representations have produced discourses of the Asian student as an economic, cultural and social 'other' and to consider the ways in which all Asian students (not only international students) are implicated in these discourses. To explore the consequences of these representations.

Data: A survey of magazines and newspapers that are readily available to the public in the Auckland urban area.

Key findings/outcomes: Argues that the categories of economic, cultural and social difference within which Asian students are represented 'make the category Asian student infer wealth, exotic difference and social problem'. Although the relevant discourses are ostensibly about international students, others, including those who are New Zealand citizens or permanent residents are implicated in these representations. A significant consequence has been the cementing of a connection between 'Asian' and 'foreign' in Auckland.

Scope: Covered daily, weekly and community newspapers, magazines and business serials. A total of 859 articles were included in the survey.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - secondary, education - tertiary, Asian, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, media analysis

E45. Coxon, E., 2002 Literature review on Pacific education issues: Report to the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Education, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To identify and review research on Pacific education issues across the education sector. To contribute to the identification of future research topics that may help improve the educational achievement of Pacific students.

Data: Research reports, related publications such as books, journal articles, conference proceedings and unpublished research (e.g. theses) on Pacific education.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Increasingly, Pacific researchers are undertaking work on Pacific education. (2) There is considerable concern among researchers about continued disparities between Pacific and non-Pacific peoples in relation to education throughout the sector. (3) Studies tend to target Pacific people as a group rather than as ethnic-specific groups (the main ethnic group that is targeted is the Samoan community). (4) Notes the limitations of many studies in terms of scope, size and method. (5) There is little or no research in a range of important areas such as teacher education, polytechnic education, the intermediate years. (6) There is no research addressing the learning experiences of Pacific boys and men. (7) Recent evaluation research, including Strengthening Education in Mangere and Otara (SEMO, available on the Ministry of Education website, www.minedu.govt.nz), and Achievement in Multi Cultural High Schools (AIMHI, see Hawk and Hill 1996 [E57], Hill and Hawk 1998 [E58]), is providing rich data and analysis of school and classroom practices.

Scope: The review focuses primarily on New Zealand sources although other studies about Pacific education that may be of relevance to New Zealand were also included, for example, education in Pacific countries and migrant Pacific communities in countries other than New Zealand.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - acculturation, education - achievement, Pacific, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, literature review

E46. Dickie, J., 2000 'Pacific nations students in primary teacher training: Investigating their learning needs', SET: Research Information for Teachers, 2, 11-14.

Research focus/aims: How can colleges of education best support Pacific nations students to complete primary teacher training successfully? The study set out to review and challenge aspects of teaching and learning for these students at the Wellington College of Education.

Participants: Pacific nations student teachers from Samoa, Cook Islands, Tokelau, Niue and Fiji (n=21, with 14 identifying as Samoan). English was a first language for 18, and 19 had attended school in New Zealand.

Key findings/outcomes: Barriers to learning: (1) Difficulty in participating actively in class and in seeking out a tutor to ask for assistance, often due to cultural constraints, particularly with respect to attitudes to authority. (2) Language difficulties with respect to the degree of English proficiency required for assignments and in lectures/tutorials. (3) Having to deal with generalisations made by tutors regarding Pacific nations people and culture. (4) Time pressure due to family, community and church commitments. (5) Financial pressure - many students needed a part time job and this impacted on their study time.

Recommendations: To address these barriers, students suggested: (1) Learning support workshops based on students' needs. (2) Grouping students together in class - but not to the extent of having a Pacific-only class. (3) The appointment of a Pacific liaison person with a pastoral role. (4) Having a space to meet/study as Pacific nations students. (4) 16 of the 21 participants indicated that they would like to teach their Pacific language in a bilingual class in the future. Offers suggestions on the implications of these findings for tutors and colleges of education.

Scope: Qualitative data were gathered through interviews, quantitative data were also gathered (method unspecified). See also Fa'afoi and Fletcher (2001 [E48]).

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - tertiary, family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, Samoan, Cook Islands, Tokelau, Niue, Fiji, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews

E47. Evolve, 2005 African youth and wellbeing: Participatory action research project, Department of Geography, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To strengthen the wellbeing of young African people in Wellington by identifying significant issues that they face, and to develop strategies to address these issues. To build research capacity among young people.

Participants: A participatory action research project implemented by Evolve (an inner-city youth service), five post-graduate students from Victoria University and by African young people in Wellington.

Key findings/outcomes: Issues identified included: (1) New Zealand Police and the legal system: African Youth experience has been marked by discrimination, hyper-sensitivity and lack of understanding by the Police, and by lack of knowledge about the law by the young people. (2) Sexual health and wellbeing: there is a lack of access to appropriate information, resources, support and education, particularly for young African women. (3) Intergenerational tensions: reconciling parental and community expectations with Kiwi culture is a significant challenge for the young people. (4) Education: African Youth feel isolated, under-valued and marginalised at school. ESOL was particularly highlighted as a source of frustration and exclusion.

Recommendations: (1) Establishment of a youth rights workshop; appointment of an African mediator to facilitate interaction between the young people and the Police; a documentary to give the young people a voice to share experiences of treatment by the Police. (2) Health workshops; continuation of Evolve's current work. (3) A workshop for youth and parents run by Evolve and the Refugee and Migrant Service; a bi-annual 'celebrating your parents' event hosted by Evolve. (4) An African peer support leader in each Wellington school that has African students; support and training for teachers and teacher trainees on having African youth in the classroom.

Scope: The process involved the students and young people as project partners in research design, implementation and presentation. Methods used included mapping, drama, focus group discussions, interviews and role plays.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - secondary, health - services, family - intergenerational relationships, African, migrants, refugees, overseas born, case study

E48. Fa'afoi, A. and Fletcher, J., 2001 'How can we support Pacific Island students in teacher education?', Journal of Educational Research, 6, 1, 61-77.

Research focus/aims: To identify how teacher educators can best support Pacific Island student teachers by exploring the experiences of first year Pacific students enrolled in 2001 in the School of Primary Teacher Education, Christchurch College of Education. In particular, the research explored: (1) the extent to which barriers to success for these students (as identified in the literature) were apparent at the CCE; (2) whether the support systems for NESB students already in place in the CCE were sufficient to meet the needs of Pacific students; (3) whether other support systems should be established.

Participants: Pacific student teachers enrolled in first year Bachelor of Teaching and Learning and first year Graduate Diploma of Teaching and Learning at CCE (n=13). Some second and third year Pacific students also joined the weekly meetings.

Key findings/outcomes: Key barriers to learning were: (1) Time pressure, due to commitments to family, church and community. (2) Financial pressure due to commitments to family, church and community. (3) Language difficulties, including for those for whom English was a first language - the proficiency in language required for understanding lectures, readings and writing assignments was time-consuming to attain.

Recommendations: Suggests ways to overcome these barriers: (1) Language difficulties can be addressed through pre-entry introductory courses; establishing a learning development unit; training staff in cultural sensitivity to the needs of Pacific Island students; grouping these students together to form study groups; appointing staff who are specifically designated as support people for Pacific Island students. (2) Supports the continued professional development of staff particularly in terms of instilling awareness of pedagogical methodologies that are appropriate and effective for cultures other than the mainstream. (3) Also supports regular discussions between staff and students about enhancing the learning environment. (4) In relation to barriers (1) and (2), suggests that teacher educators could facilitate fora to raise awareness in the Pacific community about the pressures that their young people face when studying to be teachers. (5) Continued multi-level communication (students, teacher educators, Pacific Island elders, relevant government ministries) is to be encouraged.

Scope: Data gathered through a questionnaire and through weekly lunchtime meetings of participants with the researchers. See also Dickie (2000 [E46]).

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - acculturation, education - tertiary, family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey, interviews

E49. Filipo, S.L., 2002 'An observational study of Catholic education within a Pacific Islander communities school in Auckland', Action in Teacher Education, 24, 2, 75-84.

Research focus/aims: To observe Treaty of Waitangi policies in the life of an all-boys Catholic school with a roll that is 90 percent Pacific students (from Samoa, Tonga, Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, Rotuma and Tuvalu). To identify whether these policies matched the concerns and/or aspirations of participating students.

Participants: Samoan/Maori parents (n=8) and students (n=7), teaching staff members (n=5).

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Many teachers (mainly Pakeha) had little or no knowledge of the cultural and ethnic identities of their students, whether Maori or Pacific. (2) Some students and staff saw no need for the school to engage with Treaty policies. (3) Teachers are missing the opportunity to make connections among Maori, Pacific and Palagi students at the school. (4) There is little evidence of Treaty partnership between Maori and the school authorities, and because of this, there is limited scope for the Pacific community, particularly the large Samoan community to participate fully in such a partnership.

Scope: Case study of one school using documentary analysis of school policy documents, interviews with staff, students and parents, and participant observation at the school.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - secondary, Maori, Pacific, Samoa, Tonga, Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, Rotuman, Tuvalu, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, case study

E50. Fogarty, J.W., 1992 'On the cutting edge of two cultures: Cultural adaptation and areas of tension of Samoan adolescent girls in a New Zealand high school', New Zealand Journal of Counselling, 14, 2, 11-18.

Research focus/aims: To study the concerns of adolescent Samoan girls (both New Zealand born, and born in Samoa) in a South Auckland high school, looking in particular at how the girls experience tensions between New Zealand and Samoan culture in several domains: school, home and family life, language and culture. Implications of the study for the work of guidance counsellors were explored.

Participants: Fifth form Samoan girls aged 15 or 16 years. These were the first group of girls at the school to have access to a guidance counsellor from the third form. Most (46) were New Zealand born, with parents born in Samoa. Another ten were born in Samoa.

Key findings/outcomes: In terms of school life, most participants reported experiencing racism or prejudice at school; two-thirds felt that new topics were not explained clearly enough by the teacher; some were afraid to ask for help or felt that the teacher expected too much of them. Over half experienced tension between Samoan home life and Palagi school life. Homework was a significant concern for over half of the participants. Many had significant family responsibilities also. Many move constantly between two cultures/languages between school and home. Implications for counsellors: effective outcomes may be enhanced if there is a close cultural or ethnic match between the counsellor and the client, or at least some other forms of commonality such as gender, life style, education, social class. Those involved in cross cultural work such as counselling must be sensitive to the boundaries that are being crossed every day by students, and be aware that they cannot assume that they know thoroughly the situation of their clients.

Scope: A questionnaire was administered in class time to all fifth form Samoan girls in one South Auckland secondary school. This had a three-fold structure covering school, language and culture, and home and family life.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - secondary, family - intergenerational relationships, health - services, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

E51. Fusitu'a, L. and Coxon, E. 1998 'Ko e 'Ulungaanga Faka-Tonga mo e Ako Lelei: Tongan culture and academic achievement', New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 33, 1, 23-38.

Research focus/aims: To examine the experiences of a group of Tongan adults who developed a homework centre for secondary school Tongan students in Auckland and to consider the perspectives of the students who attended the centre.

Participants: Tongan born parents (n=7) of students attending the centre, students attending the centre, teachers at the students' regular school.

Key findings/outcomes: Current understandings and expectations of schooling held by Tongan parents in New Zealand can only be adequately understood with reference to the 'ulungaanga faka-Tonga (Tongan culture), and in terms of socio-historical and political contexts. Parents considered both English and Tongan languages to be important; they expressed a wish for more Tongan teachers; they tended to believe that those children who were not doing well were not working hard enough, and some also blamed aspects of Tongan culture for the low achievement levels. The students were concerned about their education, worried about low levels of achievement and believed that the homework centre would help. They tended to attribute their low achievement to inappropriate teaching style and/or a teacher who did not respond to their needs. All agreed that learning difficulties resulted from weak English proficiency. Suggests that the recruitment of Tongan teachers would address multiple concerns including that they would command the respect and attention of students, which parents see as essential, and they would be bilingual and culturally literate in ways that the students could relate to easily. The homework centre did improve students' confidence and therefore their learning, and this was noted by teachers in their regular school.

Scope: Semi-structured interviews with parents, classroom observation at the centre, questionnaire administered to students, interviews with selected teachers in the regular school attended by the students.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - secondary, family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, Tongan, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews, survey

E52. Gravatt, B., Lewis, M. and Richards, J.C., 1998 'A survey of the needs of ESL students at one university', The TESOLANZ Journal, 6, 75-88.

Research focus/aims: To assess the needs of ESL students at the University of Auckland.

Participants: University staff (n=136) in the faculties of Science, Commerce, Arts and 'Other'. Students (n=305) from fourteen departments, from years 1-3. Among the students, 90 percent were Asian; the remainder were European, Pacific and Middle Eastern.

Key findings/outcomes: The emphases of staff and students differed in the following ways: (1) Staff thought that listening was the most important skill for these students to learn while the students ranked listening, reading and writing more or less equally. (2) Staff thought that reasons for students not participating in class were linked to the students not wanting to expose their weaknesses, whereas students stated that non-participation was primarily due to language difficulties. (3) Staff thought the students had greatest difficulty with writing, but students rated writing as only slightly more of a barrier to learning than problems with other communication skills.

Recommendations: (1) Staff who mark assignments should receive formal instruction in the writing process in order to give useful feedback. (2) Staff should not be lenient on writing skills (e.g. marking only according to structure and understanding and passing over writing problems, as students will not be encouraged to improve their writing if it is not rated in the assessment). (3) Students should be encouraged to understand the value of speaking for learning, and hence the importance of participation in tutorials. (4) The University should consider ways to help students know where to access help, as many students were not aware of the help that was available to them.

Scope: Separate survey questionnaires for staff and students. See also:

• Gravatt, B. Richards, J.C. and Lewis, M., 1997 Language needs in Tertiary Studies: ESL Students at the University of Auckland, Occasional Papers No. 10, Institute of Language Teaching and Learning, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - tertiary, migrants, overseas born, survey

E53. Guerin, B., Guerin, P., Abdi, A., and Diiriye, R.O., 2003 'Identity and community: Somali children's adjustments to life in the western world', In Gao, J., Le Heron, R., and Logie, J., (eds) Windows on a Changing World, 184-188, New Zealand Geographical Society, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To give an overview of the situation of Somali refugee children in Hamilton.

Participants: Somali children of all ages across a range of research projects.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Weak links between school and family, and strong links between families and the Somali and Islamic communities shape the socialisation of Somali children. (2) Children often have had disrupted schooling. (3) Parents are not accustomed to being heavily involved in schooling. (4) Generational issues include the adaptation of children to western practices in terms of relationships with parents and peers while parents remain strongly traditional in their expectations of young people's behaviour. (5) An additional issue has been that refugees have often been women and children, leaving few authority figures for young men who traditionally are raised and disciplined by male members of the family.

Recommendations: Possible interventions include: (1) Inviting parents on school trips with their children. (2) Translations of school letters etc. into Somali. (3) Informing parents about the New Zealand school system through the use of a video. (4) Parent-teacher nights for these parents. (5) Bilingual teaching assistants who can liaise with parents. (6) More flexibility in school in terms of placing Somali students in age groups and ability groups at different times of the day.

Scope: Discusses a range of research projects that have been running for over five years and have used a variety of research methods, particularly ethnography through researchers variously living in the Somali community, working for the Refugee and Migrant Service, working as a refugee co-ordinator for the Ministry of Education, working as volunteers teaching English, running exercise classes and leading summer camp for Somali boys. See also:

• Abdi, A., 2003 Enhancing educational access for the Somali community through positive school management and parental involvement, M Management Studies, Hamilton: University of Waikato [E34].

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - secondary, family - intergenerational relationships, identity, peer relationships, Somali, refugees, interviews, ethnography

E54. Hamilton, R. J., Anderson, A., Frater-Mathieson, K., Loewen S., and Moore, D., 2000 Interventions for refugee children in New Zealand schools: Models, methods, and best practice, Ministry of Education, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To identify school based interventions to assist refugee children and to identify methods and measures of programme/intervention assessment. It is intended that these methods/measures could be used to evaluate current programmes and to inform the design of future ones according to best practice.

Data: International and local literature with a particular focus on refugees and schooling/education.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) There is a paucity of literature specifically concerned with refugee children and even less on school based interventions. (2) Much of the material addresses language acquisition. (3) Cultural and experiential differences among refugees mean that findings in the literature are unlikely to be generalisable across cultures. (4) Relevant literature includes work on mental health and trauma and on resilience.

Recommendations: Makes a range of recommendations regarding best practice around psychological and therapeutic needs; language needs; fostering resilience; easing transition to the new country/culture; the structure of schools, school policies and teaching practices; facilitating school change and teacher development; inclusive education.

Scope: A wide-ranging report identifying a large number of 'best practice' recommendations.

Keywords: education - school organisation, education - language, education - acculturation, refugees, literature review

E55. Hamilton, R.J., Frater-Mathieson, K., Moore, D., Anderson, A., and Loewen, S., 2001 Kosova Project: Evaluation of contexts, input, processes and products: Report to the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Education, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To report on an evaluation of a Special Education Service intervention designed to provide small group and individual assistance for up to 150 pre-school and school age Kosova refugees. The intervention included: assessment, functional analysis, therapeutic interventions and monitoring, provision of information and support for schools, teachers and early childhood centres.

Participants: Kosova refugee students (n=150) and their families, schools and ECE centres and their staff, refugee service sector staff.

Key findings/outcomes: Critical issues that emerged from the evaluation included: (1) The importance of adequate preparation and consultation with refugee support services, teachers and others involved in an intervention. (2) The availability of focused, on-going and accessible support was appreciated by schools. (3) A focus on prevention, early intervention and making connections with parents to engage parent support were vital. (4) Services must be well co-ordinated across different sectors to make best use of the extensive expertise and experience that is available in the refugee services sector and in schools. (5) Important to involve members from the refugee community in the education process, e.g. as teacher aides, interpreters, bi-cultural education workers. (6) Flexibility is needed: tight targeting of funds, for example, to schools for extra hours, can inhibit the ability of schools and service providers to respond to pressing needs as they arise. Offers a wide range of recommendations about how to address these issues.

Scope: An extensive analysis offering a range of recommendations.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - school organisation, health - services, Kosova, refugees, case study, evaluation

E56. Hawk, K., Cowley, E. T., Hill, J., and Sutherland, S., 2002 'The importance of the teacher/student relationship for Maori and Pasifika students', SET: Research Information for Teachers, 3, 44-49.

Research focus/aims: Uses the results of three separate studies (at primary, secondary and tertiary education level) to describe common themes that emerged regarding the characteristics of good relationships between teachers and learners, that is, relationships that contribute to promoting student motivation and effective learning, particularly among Maori and Pasifika students.

Participants: Teachers at low decile primary schools (n=3), teachers (n=89) and students (n=600) at a range of low decile secondary schools, lecturers and students at Auckland University of Technology.

Key findings/outcomes: Across the three projects, common characteristics of effective teacher-learner relationships emerged. These included: (1) Empathy: no correlation was found between effectiveness and ethnicity, age, gender, subject area or years of experience. Rather, empathy included attitudes, values, behaviours, effort and skills, and also an understanding of Maori and Pasifika cultures. (2) Caring: demonstrated as friendliness, warmth etc. (3) Mutual respect: e.g. giving helpful explanations and reasons for actions, being sincere and professional, thanking and apologising as appropriate, valuing student input, giving feedback, being polite. (4) 'Going the extra mile' in offering help and encouragement to students. (6) Passion to enthuse and motivate. (7) Patience and perseverance. (8) Belief in students' abilities. Article details further how students assess the teacher-learner relationship and good outcomes from effective relationships. Raises issues and implications for teachers, principals and trustees.

Scope: Extensive, in-depth qualitative data were gathered from interviews, classroom observations and group discussions across the three studies. Quantitative data were also gathered from the AUT study. See also Hawk and Hill (1996 [E57]) and Hill and Hawk (1998 [E58]).

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - secondary, Maori, Pacific, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews, participant observation

E57. Hawk, K. and Hill, J., 1996 Towards making achievement cool: Achievement in multi-cultural high schools (AIMHI), Report prepared for the Ministry of Education, Educational Research and Development Centre, Massey University, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To report on the AIMHI project. In particular, to identify the effects on student achievement of school organisation and governance, parental and community involvement and other issues in the selected schools.

Participants: Teaching and non-teaching staff, principals and senior management teams, students, members of Boards of Trustees, local community members.

Key findings/outcomes: A very wide range of specific findings is outlined.

Recommendations: To improve the achievement potential of students in these schools: (1) Find ways to measure and reward achievement that are appropriate to these students. (2) Attract the right types of teachers and leaders to these schools. (3) Support these teachers/leaders in ways that enable them to deliver effective programmes. (4) Resource schools equitably so that the socio-economic status of a community does not disadvantage them. (5) Provide adequately for the health, welfare and pastoral needs of students in order to free up teachers to teach. (6) Provide administrative support and training for Trustees. (7) Develop appropriate review processes to enable accurate and balanced assessment of school performance without perpetuating existing problems.

Scope: Eight decile one secondary schools with high ratios of Pacific students (mainly Samoan, Cook Island and Tongan), and significant numbers of Maori students were involved. One of the schools was in Wellington, seven in Auckland. All but one (a Catholic integrated girls' school) were state co-educational schools. Data were gathered from interviews with participants (including small-group interviews with students), school documents and participant observation over a six-month period. National achievement data were also analysed.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - school organisation, education - secondary, Pacific, Samoan, Cook Islands, Tongan, Maori, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews, participant observation, documents, national data

E58. Hill, J. and Hawk, K., 1998 'Aiming for student achievement: How teachers can understand and better meet the needs of Pacific Island and Maori students', SET: Research Information for Teachers, 2, Item 4.

Research focus/aims: To identify, understand and describe factors that impact on student achievement in eight low decile secondary schools participating in the Ministry of Education AIMHI (Achievement in Multicultural High Schools) project. To provide baseline data against which progress made by the schools during the project could be measured.

Participants: Staff, boards of trustees and students (n=900) at the schools.

Key findings/outcomes: Influences over which the schools has little control included: poverty, unemployment of parents, poor accommodation, lack of disposable income for basic expenses, poor health, family dysfunction. Factors over which schools had some control included: (1) easing the transition to secondary school through good preparation at intermediate, organised induction, peer support, acknowledgement of the social, emotional and information needs of students; (2) effective communication with parents; (3) running comprehensive life skills and health programmes beginning at Year 9, and employing a fully qualified on-site nurse. Teacher qualities were also cited as important (see Hawk et al. 2002 [E56]).

Scope: Interviews were held with staff and trustees; students participated in group discussions. See also Hawk et al. (2002 [E56]), and Hawk and Hill (1996 [E57]).

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - learning styles, education - school organisation, health - services, Pacific, Maori, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews

E59. Hindmarsh, M., Hohepa, M., and Murphy, W., 1995 'School retention policy for Pacific Island students', New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 30, 2, 119-133.

Research focus/aims: To summarise the lessons learned from pilot programmes on school retention established by the School Community Liaison and Curriculum Advisory Policies of 1990-91. The aim of these policies was to prevent 15 and 16 year olds from leaving formal education.

Participants: Fifteen School Community Liaison positions were piloted, four with Pacific Islands communities and their schools and eleven with Maori.

Key findings/outcomes: Suggests the SCL demonstrated significant potential to address the needs of Maori and Pacific young people in a Pakeha dominated education system. Proposes six principles that emerged as important in the evaluation phase: (1) honouring Te Tiriti O Waitangi, cultural autonomy, consistency; (2) devolution, local autonomy and flexibility; (3) worker independence; (4) reflection on action: mentoring, research, networking; (5) accountability; (6) appropriate timing, time and sustainability.

Scope: The pilot phase was limited in that it only ran for eight months, and the full policy package - the Curriculum Advisory - policy was never implemented. Trends and evidence, while limited, suggest that the policy had considerable potential.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - secondary, Pacific, Maori, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, case study, evaluation

E60. Hodson, D. 1998 Science and technology, education and ethnicity: an Aotearoa/New Zealand perspective: proceedings of a conference held at The Royal Society of New Zealand, Wellington, May 7-8, 1996, Royal Society of New Zealand, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: (1) To address the continuing underachievement of Maori and Pacific students in secondary school science and technology courses. (2) To address the failure of the tertiary education sector to attract significant numbers of these groups into science and engineering programmes.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Presenters argued that many students from ethnic minority groups experience considerable tension between their cultural identity and science/technology education and many do not feel that they have a place in science/technology education. (2) It is important to create science/technology curricula that recognise the existence of cultural differences in terms, for example, of the needs, experiences, interests and aspirations of Maori and Pacific students (3) This involves recognising the multi-cultural history of science and technology and the ways in which these are culturally determined. (4) Some contributors emphasised the importance of taking an anti-racist stance with respect to the use of 'race' in science, while others emphasised the importance of teaching science with a critical perspective in terms of the links between science and issues of social justice. (5) Presenters argued that these approaches do not mean abandoning scientific objectivity or diluting the science content of courses, but rather looking critically at the nature of scientific rationality and at the interests and values that underpin the practice of science. (6) Language emerged as a key issue.

Scope: Proceedings of a conference including presentations from a wide cross section of the New Zealand and overseas science education community. See also:

• Waiti, P. and R. Hipkins, 2002 'Cultural issues that challenge traditional science teaching,' paper presented at the 3rd Annual New Zealand Science Education Symposium. Wellington, Massey University, NZCER. This paper outlines three models for aligning western science with other knowledge systems and argues that dialogue about the issues raised is a necessary first step to achieving changes in relevant classroom practice that may lead to improved achievement levels among Maori and Pasifika students in secondary schools.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - secondary, education - tertiary, Maori, Pacific, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, literature review

E61. Holmes, P., 2004 'Negotiating differences in learning and intercultural communication: Ethnic Chinese Students in a New Zealand University', Business Communication Quarterly, 67, 3, 294.

Research focus/aims: How do Chinese students make sense of the learning and interpersonal communication styles that operate in a New Zealand university business school? What are the implications of these experiences for teachers in such schools?

Participants: Thirteen ethnic Chinese students in their first year of study in a university business school in New Zealand (included students in diploma, undergraduate and post-graduate courses).

Key findings/outcomes: The dialogic nature of classroom communication created difficulties for these students in terms of listening, understanding and interacting. Their previous educational experiences had not prepared them for New Zealand expectations regarding appropriate writing styles and critical analysis, nor for a clear understanding of what constitutes plagiarism in the New Zealand educational context.

Recommendations: Implications of these findings include: (1) that teachers need to respond to difference in ways that go beyond deficit approaches; (2) that ethnic Chinese students need to be better prepared for the learning environment in New Zealand; and (3) that awareness and appreciation of diversity and difference in host institutions and among local students would assist these students to succeed and adapt in the New Zealand context.

Scope: An ethnographic study conducted over an 18-month period. Included three semi-structured interviews with each participant. See also (drawn from the same study):

• Holmes, P., 2005, 'Ethnic Chinese students' communication with cultural others in a New Zealand University', Communication Education, 54, 4, which considers the participants' communication with New Zealand students and asks how they negotiate the cultural differences involved. Concludes that (1) participants found this communication difficult and very different from what they were used to - not just in terms of language but in terms of communication style. This was particularly the case in the context of asking/answering questions, giving opinions, expressing ideas, and managing interpersonal skills in group work and when interacting with teachers. (2) Participants reconstructed their intercultural communication patterns in the light of these experiences. This was more pronounced among the post-graduate students than among under-graduates. For example, the latter group tended to keep silent in class because this was more culturally familiar for them, whereas the post-graduates took up a more dialogic model of classroom behaviour. This was made easier for them by smaller classes, specialised work and lecturer expectations about participation. Implications include: the importance for host teachers and host students to develop and foster classroom practices that contribute to successful communication among ethnically different groups. This involves recognising and accepting diverse ways of learning, knowing, communicating and being.

• Holmes, P., 2002 Alliances and contestations: intercultural communication among Confucian heritage culture students and cultural others in a New Zealand university, Hamilton: University of Waikato, Department of Management Communication.

• Holmes, P., 2000 Strangers, sojourners, selves: the intercultural communication experiences of ethnic Chinese students in western tertiary education, PhD, University of Waikato.

• Holmes, P., (n.d.) The intercultural communication experiences of Ethnic Chinese students in a Western tertiary institution: Implications for education providers, Department of Management Communication, University of Waikato, Hamilton.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - learning styles, education - tertiary, Asian, Chinese, migrant, overseas born, ethnography

E62. Horner, C., Khan, S., Paton, K., Hagos, A., and Kindon, S., 2006 Supporting refugee background students to achieve their goals, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To work with refugee background students and service providers at Victoria University, Wellington to determine what support systems are available to these students and how they can be better supported in the future.

Participants: Refugee background students (n=13), service providers (n=9).

Key findings/outcomes: Students identified six goals associated with being at university: getting an education; finishing study; getting high marks; socialising; getting a good job; helping 'our people'. Stepping stones required to achieve these goals: cultural sensitivity in the university environment was identified as of primary importance. Also important were: motivation, helpful lecturers, study groups. Service providers observed that refugee background students are not a readily identifiable group within VUW. Service providers considered that managing the transition from structured learning to individual university study was vital to success at university. Lack of awareness of services by these students was an important issue.

Recommendations: (1) Upskill academic staff on teaching in culturally diverse classrooms and on the special circumstances of refugee background students. (2) Formation of a refugee background student network to advocate for refugee background students. (3) Service providers regarded identification of these students as important for addressing their needs. Recommends better networking and referral between service providers, and raising awareness among target groups about the services they are entitled to access.

Scope: A participatory action research project using a range of research methods in workshops with participants.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - acculturation, education - tertiary, services, refugees, interviews, workshops

E63. Humpage, L., 1998a Refuge or turmoil?: Somali adolescent refugees in Christchurch schools: intercultural struggle and the practices of exclusion. A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts in Sociology at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch.

Research focus/aims: To consider the adaptation of Somali adolescent refugees to secondary school in Christchurch.

Participants: Somali adolescents (n=17) aged 14-20 years, from six Christchurch secondary schools, Somali parents (n=3), professionals involved in education and refugee resettlement.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Somali students have difficulty fitting in at school both academically and culturally because of gaps in their previous schooling and unfamiliar learning styles in New Zealand. Parents struggle to assist their children because of language difficulties and unfamiliarity with New Zealand schooling systems. Other important factors include lack of financial resources and the importance of religion in these students' lives. (2) Schools have difficulty coping with the academic and cultural challenges that these young people present. Cross cultural communication often produces negative outcomes because of misunderstandings. Racism from Kiwi students and high levels of truancy from Somali students are often the outcomes of this. Everyday practices result in social closure, excluding Somali students.

Recommendations: (1) Extra subject support and peer tutoring. (2) Improved knowledge by teachers of the students' needs. (3) A National Languages policy and a curriculum specific to ESOL. (4) Establishment of a Refugee Orientation Centre specifically for refugee students.

Scope: Semi-structured individual and group interviews, documentary research, participant observation.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - acculturation, education - secondary, identity, Somali, refugee, interviews

E64. Humpage, L., 1998b 'Cultural understanding: Somali students in Christchurch', Many Voices, 13, 8-10.

Research focus/aims: Explores the experiences of Somali adolescents in a Christchurch school. Asks about the importance to them of education, religion, diversity.

Participants: Two female and seven male Somali adolescents

Key findings/outcomes: Education is very important to these young people, their parents are highly educated and have high expectations of them. Religion is very important but also structures social interaction in particular ways, and may hamper some interaction with Kiwi peers especially with respect to dating, partying and drinking alcohol. The young people did not mind talking with others about their religion, but did not wish to be seen as 'spokespeople' for Islam or Somalia. Stressed the importance of teachers and others recognising that there is diversity within the Somali community, and expectations that all Somali young people should be 'the same' were problematic.

Scope: Unstructured, small group, in-depth interviews. See Humpage's MA thesis (1998a [E63]), for a fuller account of this research.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - aspirations, Somali, refugees, interviews

E65. Humpage, L., 2000b 'Positioned for disadvantage: Somali refugee adolescents in Christchurch secondary schools.' In Madjar, V., and Humpage, L., Refugees in New Zealand: the experiences of Bosnian and Somali refugees, 45-75, Massey University School of Sociology and Women's Studies, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To investigate barriers to academic and cultural adaptation for adolescent Somali refugees living in Christchurch.

Participants: Somali refugee adolescents (n=17) aged 14-20 years attending six Christchurch secondary schools. Somali refugee parents (n=3) and New Zealand educators (n=16).

Key findings/outcomes: Academic barriers include: (1) gaps in (or lack of) education prior to arriving in New Zealand; (2) premature and inappropriate mainstreaming (e.g. once students have gained conversational fluency in English but still lack proficiency in academic English); (3) concepts of teaching and learning, and school cultures, that are unfamiliar to these young people; (4) inability of parents to be actively involved in their children's education due to language difficulties and different school cultures; (5) inadequate attempts by schools to be inclusive of Somali learning needs due to factors such as time pressure on teachers, lack of resources, lack of awareness by teachers of Somali students' learning needs. Barriers to cultural adaptation include: (1) differences in attitudes, roles and behaviour that lead to conflict between Somali and Kiwi students. Areas of difference/conflict include religion, attitudes towards parental authority, gendered and age-related roles and interaction. (2) Lack of knowledge of Somali culture among educators and non-Somali in the host society; (3) the disjuncture experienced by the young people in moving from their past to their present situation; (4) mismatched expectations between the refugee young people and their peers and teachers (e.g. the Somalis expected to go to university but all but one of the teachers spoken to regarded their professional aspirations as unrealistic).

Scope: Semi-structured in-depth individual and group interviews. Other aspects of this discussion, drawing on the same research project, are developed in Humpage, L. and Fleras, A., (2000). "Systemic Bias and the Marginalisation of Somali Refugee Adolescents within New Zealand Education", New Zealand Sociology, vol 15(1). This paper argues that Somali students are inadvertently disadvantaged by the systemic nature of a Eurocentric schooling environment. Rituals, roles and rules that appear to be neutral, but are unwittingly Eurocentric, systematically discriminate against those whose culture and life experience differ from that of the dominant group. This applies in particular to rituals associated with learning, teaching and organisation; to role conflict and confusion that arises around gender, age and behaviour, and to rules such as those associated with entrance requirements to schools (that mean that Somali young people may not be able to attend single sex schools) and those associated with school uniforms (that affect young Somali women in particular).

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - learning styles, education - aspirations, peer relationships, Somali, refugees, interviews

E66. Jones, A., 1986 'At school I've got a chance...' Social reproduction in a New Zealand secondary school, Department of Education, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To examine some of the processes, both ideological and pedagogical, through which schooling contributes to social reproduction, drawing on the commonsense knowledge and classroom practices of two groups of fifth form girls with different social class backgrounds.

Participants: Two groups of girls in an inner city all-girls school in New Zealand: one of working-class Pacific Island girls, and one of middle-class Pakeha girls.

Key findings/outcomes: Teaching and learning interactions in the classroom are part of a larger, political process that reproduces unequal power relations already present in society. The cultural dominance of a middle class Pakeha perspective is evident in curriculum content as well as in the style, manner, norms and beliefs in use in the classroom. Argues that the school actively distributes knowledge that is valuable (and the tools to use it) to middle class students but not to working class students. Examines how both students and teachers are involved in this reproduction, a process that comes about through the selective penalising and rewarding of students' cultural forms of learning.

Scope: An ethnographic study in which the author spent over a year as a student/researcher in the school. Data were gathered through participant observation, interviews, conversations and classroom observation. See also (from the same project):

• Jones, A., 1985 'Which girls are learning to lose? Gender, class, race in the classroom', Women's Studies Journal, 2, 1, 15-27.

• Jones, A., 1988 'Which girls are learning to lose? Gender, class, race and talking in the classroom', Middleton, S., Women and Education in Aotearoa, 143-152, Wellington: Allen and Unwin/Port Nicholson Press.

From the same research project, these focus on public verbal interaction in the classroom between the girls in this study and their teachers. Found that the Pacific students were less likely than the Pakeha students to be asked direct questions of a routine or substantive nature by the teacher and were also less likely themselves to answer questions that were put to a class a whole. Argues that 'thinking aloud' in the form of answering questions in the classroom is an important form of learning, and that talking is essential for developing the kind of knowledge that is valued and rewarded at school. Argues further, that it is through classroom interaction between teacher and student that students learn what is expected of them, e.g. whether they are expected to have ideas of their own or only to memorise what they have been told. Concludes that because of the patterns of classroom interaction observed, these Pacific girls are missing out on both of these aspects of learning. These articles also consider the different norms of respect for authority held by the Pacific and Pakeha students. One result of this was the tendency of the Pacific girls to keep silent in class, while the Pakeha girls were more likely to 'try out' their opinions in public, and to question the teacher. This imbalance in verbal interaction in the classroom meant that class activity that was strongly defined by the Pakeha girls' needs, interests and concerns. This behaviour by the Pakeha girls also tended to be rewarded by the teacher, reinforcing the opinion among the Pacific girls that their Pakeha classmates were somehow 'brighter' than they were.

• Jones, A., 1991 'At school I've got a chance'. Culture/Privilege: Pacific Islands and Pakeha Girls at School, Palmerston North: Dunmore Press. Presents the above research project in book form.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - secondary, Pacific, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, ethnography

E67. Jones, A., 2001 'Difference and desire: dividing classrooms by ethnicity', SET: Research Information for Teachers, 1, 29-32.

Research focus/aims: To consider the different reactions of two groups of third year university students (one Pakeha, the other Maori and Pacific) to their separation into two classes on the basis of ethnicity in feminist theory course.

Participants: Female students in the 3rd year course (n=90).

Key findings/outcomes: Most Pakeha students were hostile to the separation, while Maori and Pacific students were uniformly very pleased with it. The latter's achievement academically in the course was on a par with that of their Pakeha counterparts, a result which had not been achieved in previous years when the course was not separated in this way. Argues that Pakeha educators must critically examine the call for cross-cultural sharing and dialogue in the classroom and, in particular, consider the possibility that, within the classroom, dialogue may not have the same compellingly positive meaning for different ethnic groups.

Scope: Students kept a journal of their intellectual journey throughout the course.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - tertiary, Maori, Pacific, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, case study

E68. Kepa, T. M. A., 2001 Language matters: the politics of teaching immigrant adolescents school English, EdD, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To offer a critical analysis of 'technocratic pedagogy' in relation to the education of the children of immigrants and to consider alternative pedagogical approaches (abstract only accessed).

Key findings/outcomes: Argues that a more expansive and inclusive pedagogy that takes account of the social, economic and political contexts of learning is needed for teaching young people for whom English is a second language. Case study of a 'school within a school' for the teaching of school English argues for an approach to teaching English that recognises the importance of culture as the ground on which to begin to reflect on pedagogy.

Scope: Literature review and case study of a programme within large state secondary school in Auckland

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, New Zealand born, overseas born, review and case study

E69. Kunaswary, S., 1996 Minority Schooling in New Zealand with a Special Focus on the Ethnic Khmer, Department of Education, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To consider issues affecting the school performance of ethnic Khmer children in New Zealand.

Participants: Ethnic Khmer students, their parents and teachers.

Key findings/outcomes: While statistics seem to reveal that 'Asians' as a category are performing better than average in New Zealand schools, ethnic Khmer students are performing at below average levels. Argues that the use of the term 'Asian' helps to make this group invisible. Critiques the theory that cultural groups are integrated differently into a dominant society according to whether they are 'voluntary' or 'involuntary' and that this leads to the utilisation of different cultural models, the voluntary groups performing better in school because of their cultural model. Finds that the concept of cultural models is rigid and inadequate, and that it should be used with other theoretical approaches.

Scope: Data gathered from interviews with participants, as well as from documentary study of New Zealand immigration policies over time and of educational policies relating to immigrant and refugee groups.

Keywords: education - acculturation, Khmer, migrants, refugees, overseas born, interviews, documents

E70. Leo, A. M., 1973 Itinerant migrants: a case study of the characteristics and adjustment of Malaysian students in New Zealand. A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Geography at Massey University.

Research focus/aims: To examine the situation of Malaysian university students living in New Zealand in terms of the selection processes they experience in coming to New Zealand, their cultural, sociological and personal backgrounds and their distribution throughout New Zealand. To compare these factors with those of other groups of migrants, foreign and local students, members of the society of origin and of the host society.

Participants: Malaysian students in New Zealand universities (n=280), both international students and residents.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Students were predominantly young, male, unmarried, privately financed, from urban areas and from middle class backgrounds. (2) Those whose backgrounds most closely resembled the New Zealand norm adjusted best. (3) The more exposed students were to New Zealand society (for example, having New Zealand friends and a high level of interaction with New Zealanders) the better adjusted they became. However, it was also noted that this adjustment could make readjustment back in one's country of origin more difficult should students return there.

Scope: Used a postal questionnaire sent to a random sample of 30 percent (n=415) of the total Malaysian student population in New Zealand universities in 1973. This was supplemented by personal observation and experience as an overseas student in New Zealand.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - tertiary, identity - acculturation, peer relationships, Asian, Malaysian, migrants, overseas born, survey

E71. Lloyd, M., 1995 'Bridging the cultural gap: A literature review of factors influencing Samoan students' acculturation to western education', Many Voices, 8, 11-13.

Research focus/aims: Investigates the discrepancy between high expectations of Samoan students and often poor academic results.

Participants: Literature review of research in this field.

Key findings/outcomes: Importance of listening and memorising in Samoan culture; discontinuity between Samoan home culture and New Zealand school culture; successful integration may come at the cost of intergenerational conflict. Boosting academic achievement requires a focus on language development especially in terms of opportunities for verbalisation; the use of students' own culture as a 'cultural bridge'; fostering curiosity and motivation, encouraging students to take control of their own learning.

Scope: Review spans material from the 1970s to the early 1990s.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - language, education - secondary, family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, literature review

E72. Lyon, D. R., 1992 The Adjustment Problems of Cambodian Secondary School Students: An Exploratory Survey and an Innovative Buddy System Intervention, Department of Education, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To examine the perceptions of secondary school teachers, Cambodian students and their peers in the adjustment of Cambodian students in the school environment. To run and evaluate a buddy system pilot in an Auckland secondary school to address some of the adjustment problems of these students.

Participants: Staff and students at three Auckland secondary schools.

Key findings/outcomes: Cambodian students' perceptions of their success in adjusting to school in New Zealand (that they were not happy and not successful) differed from the perceptions of teachers and their peers (that these students were both happy and well adjusted). The Cambodian students also experienced problems with language, their home situations and their academic success. Teachers and peers also tended to be poorly aware of these issues. The buddy system was shown to improve cross-cultural awareness, appreciation, mutual respect and liking among peers.

Scope: Small scale study using interviews, surveys and, for the buddy system, pre- and post- intervention self reports.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - secondary, Asian, Cambodian, refugees, migrants, overseas born, case study

E73. MacIntyre, L. K., 1999 'Positive contributions of Pacific Island mothers to their children's education', Educating Pasefika Positively: Conference Proceedings: Pacific Islands Educators' Conference, Auckland, 13-15 April.

Research focus/aims: To outline different ways in which Tongan mothers contribute to their children's education at kindergarten, primary and secondary school levels. To identify what these women perceive to be a 'good and useful contribution'. To consider the role of teachers in relation to mothers' contributions.

Participants: Mothers of Tongan students (number not stated). Most of these women were born and schooled in Tonga.

Key findings/outcomes: While the women had clear ideas about contributing to their children's primary school education (through participation, preparation, provision and presence), they were less clear about how to make a contribution to a child's secondary education although their levels of enthusiasm to contribute remained high as did their desire to spend time and resources benefiting their child's education. Considers that a mismatch exists (or at least a difference of perception and emphasis) between Tongan mothers' understandings of schooling and those of Palangi teachers and the educational system in general. Argues that Pacific Island educators are located in the middle of this mismatch. In order for these educators to address this mismatch, they need to understand the situation, understand both cultures and make the links between these groups. To do this, resources are necessary in the form of release time, assistants and professional development.

Scope: Data gathered from interviews with Tongan mothers.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - school organisation, education - secondary, family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, Tongan, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews

E74. Maharaj, A., 1993 Ethnic minorities and art education in New Zealand: Perceptions of Indian and Chinese students, their teachers and parents: A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Education at Massey University.

Research focus/aims: To examine the perceptions of Indian and Chinese students, their parents and teachers towards art education in relation to ethnic minorities in New Zealand secondary schools.

Participants: Students in secondary and tertiary education (n=20) including: Indian (8), Chinese (7), students of mixed ethnicity (2) and one each of Maori, Anglo-New Zealander and Tongan ethnicity. Teachers (n=11) and parents (4 Chinese and 4 Indian). Most of the Indian and Chinese students and their parents were recent immigrants.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) The Indian and Chinese students and their parents were happy with art education in general but were not happy with the lack of provision for art from their cultures. They regarded the art programme as ethnocentric. Students wished their cultural background in art to be valued and recognised. (2) Parents believed it was incumbent upon the school to cater for the changing nature of the New Zealand population and support cultural maintenance of ethnic minorities through art. (3) Most of the teachers did not support this view and seemed reluctant to learn about or teach Asian art. Many appeared insensitive to the psychological needs of the Asian students and did not provide opportunities for their cultural self expression, arguing that they must adapt to New Zealand culture. (4) Students were aware of these negative attitudes and expressed a lack of confidence in their ethnicity and its expression in art.

Scope: Interviews were conducted with participants. Four case studies of artists were also carried out.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - acculturation, education - secondary, education - tertiary, Indian, Chinese, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, interviews

E75. Mak, B. S. Y., 1996 Communication apprehension of Chinese ESL students: A thesis completed in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Second Language Teaching at Massey University, Palmerston North.

Research focus/aims: To investigate communication apprehension (CA) among a group of Chinese ESL school students in New Zealand by looking in particular at the relative importance of educational, social and cultural factors in CA, and at the relationship between CA, wait time and in-class practices such as questioning and voluntary speaking.

Participants: ESL students (n=6) at a girls' secondary school: two students from each senior form (Form 5-7). Participants came from Hong Kong (1), Taiwan (2) and mainland China (3) and had been in New Zealand between 1 and 5 years.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Language distance between Chinese and English contributed strongly to CA; (2) culture was particularly important because cultural background affected learning style, attitudes towards certain classroom practices and expectations of school. (3) Speaking in class and insufficient preparation were important sources of CA in the classroom.

Scope: Multi-method approach including interviews, a ranking exercise, verbal reports, a survey questionnaire and classroom observation. Includes discussion of a pilot study conducted with 12 adult ESL students to test methodological and theoretical approaches.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - secondary, Asian, Chinese, migrant, overseas born, interviews, surveys, observation

E76. Manu'atu, L., 2000 Pedagogical possibilities for Tongan students in New Zealand secondary schooling: Tuli ke ma'u hono ngaahi malie, PhD Education, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To examine the issue of 'achievement' of Tongan students in New Zealand secondary schools, and to explore whether the notion of 'Pacific Islands education' in fact perpetuates the marginalisation of these students.

Participants: Those involved in two Tongan community based learning contexts: Katoanga Faiva (a cultural festival) and Po Ako (a homework centre). Both are enacted within the formal secondary school system in Auckland.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) These sites are the only places where substantial numbers of Tongan parents and youth actively and enthusiastically engage with their school. (2) Argues that malie and mafana, which are constitutive of good social relationships, are keys to good pedagogy and learning in both of these sites and offer a useful theoretical framework from which to analyse and reconfigure 'achievement' in the school context. (3) Enthusiasm for these pedagogical sites should, however, be tempered by recognition of the risks associated with an exclusive focus on skilled, malie-filled performance if this is separated from an analysis of the social, economic and political positioning of Tongans within New Zealand. Argues that failure to make these connections will reproduce the marginalisation of Tongan people in the New Zealand school system.

Scope: Two case studies, of a cultural festival and a homework centre.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - secondary, family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, Tongan, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, case study

E77. Mara, D., 1999 'Why research? Why educational research for/by/with Pacific communities in Aotearoa-New Zealand?' Educating Pasefika Positively: Conference Proceedings: Pacific Islands Educators' Conference, Auckland, 13-15 April.

Research focus/aims: To consider a range of research related topics in relation to Pacific students and families in Aotearoa-New Zealand including: the ownership of research, methodologies, ethics, the nature of the researcher and the researched, the outcomes of research.

Key findings/outcomes: Argues for greater involvement by Pacific researchers in educational research; the exploration and development by these researchers of Pacific methodologies (for example, the adaptation of focus group methods in culturally appropriate ways that may include provision for participants to speak in their own Pacific languages, innovative use of advisory groups and formal feedback sessions); the importance of these researchers discussing issues of ownership, method, ethics, the roles of researcher and participants, the outcomes of research. Argues for maintenance by researchers of close links with Pacific parents, teachers and communities.

Scope: Author reflects on her own research projects including: evaluation of the Anau Ako Pasifika Project and of the Pacific Islands School-Parent Community Liaison Project; a report on progress towards licensing and chartering of Pacific Islands early childhood centres, and a report on the implementation of Te Whariki (early childhood curriculum) on Pacific Islands early childhood centres. Critical education research literature is also drawn on.

Keywords: research methods, education - learning styles, education - acculturation, education - bilingualism, education - secondary, education - tertiary, Pacific, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, reflection on research methods, evaluation.

E78. Nakhid, C., 2003a 'Comparing Pasifika students' perceptions of their schooling with the perceptions of non-Pasifika teachers using the "Mediated Dialogue" as a research methodology', New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 38, 2, 207-226.

Research focus/aims: To contribute to an understanding of underachievement by Pasifika students in New Zealand schools. Argues that strategies to address this have been based on 'taken for granted' perceptions of these students rather than on students' own constructions of themselves. Argues that effective strategies must consider students' and teachers' perceptions of themselves and each other.

Participants: Two groups of six students each (ages 16-19 years, 9 Samoans, 2 Tongans, 1 Maori); five teachers (4 Palagi, 1 New Zealand Chinese).

Key findings/outcomes: There is conflict between the perceptions of students and teachers. This results in institutional practices that adversely affect the academic achievement of these students. (1) Teachers regarded low self esteem to be a problem for these students, but the students thought that this perception arose from the reactions of students to treatment by teachers. (2) Students and teachers had conflicting ideas about teaching practices, for example, the teachers were surprised to hear that the students did not like one-to-one teaching (because they did not like to be singled out, and were nervous in the presence of the teacher). (3) Different perceptions were also held of behaviour by classmates in class. Concludes that ethnicity played a more significant role than SES for these students in terms of understanding their educational experiences. In contrast, schools and teachers regarded these students primarily in terms of low SES. Their assumptions and perceptions around this status adversely affected the educational experiences of these students.

Scope: Uses a mediated dialogue approach in which focus groups of students and teachers are interviewed separately and the research acts as mediator, conveying what is said in each group to the other.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - acculturation, education - secondary, Pacific, Samoan, Tongan, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews

E79. Nakhid, C., 2003b ''Intercultural' perceptions, academic achievement, and the identifying process of Pacific Island students in New Zealand schools', Journal of Negro Education, 72, 3, 297-317.

Research focus/aims: To contribute to an understanding of 'the identifying process' of Pasifika students, that is, Pasifika students' own constructing of themselves. To advocate for space within the education system for Pasifika students to engage in this process, enabling them to connect with their own representations of who they wish to be and for these representations to be valued within the education process.

Participants: Two groups of six students each (ages 16-19 years, 9 Samoans, 2 Tongans, 1 Maori); five teachers (4 Palagi, 1 New Zealand Chinese).

Key findings/outcomes: Teachers' perceptions of Pasifika students did not recognise/value the identifying process of these students, and this influenced their responses to the students in ways that adversely affected the achievement of these young people. Concludes that teachers training colleges should look carefully at how they regard Pasifika students and communities; how they see Pasifika students in relation to their peers; what they make of these students' abilities; how they see themselves in terms of addressing the socioeconomic disparity between Pasifika students and others. Teacher trainees should be made aware of the theory of the identifying process. Finally, schools should consider why some groups of students are absent from the more academic courses.

Scope: Uses a mediated dialogue approach in which focus groups of students and teachers are interviewed separately and the research acts as mediator, conveying what is said in each group to the other.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - acculturation, education - secondary, Pacific, Samoan, Tongan, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews

E80. New Zealand Education Gazette, 2005 'The school that beats holidays', New Zealand Education Gazette, 84, 3, 6-7.

Research focus/aims: Profiles a summer school funded by the Ministry of Education for refugee students in Auckland.

Participants: Involves more than 200 refugee students of intermediate and secondary school age. Courses are delivered by registered teachers with bilingual tutors.

Key findings/outcomes: Offers these students an opportunity to learn about the New Zealand school environment and to get support for socialisation and academic achievement. The school has received significant positive feedback from students and their parents. Students have gained in confidence, and the school has also strengthened refugee communities by providing a common space for meeting and socialising.

Scope: Report based on discussion with participants and organisers.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - acculturation, education - intermediate, education - secondary, refugees, case study

E81. Pacific Island Students Academic Achievement Collective, 1993 'Coconuts begin with a 'C': Pacific Islanders at University', Many Voices, 6, 6-10.

Research focus/aims: To explain why Pacific students struggle to achieve academically and to suggest ways to improve this situation.

Participants: A group of Pacific students at University of Auckland.

Key findings/outcomes: Pacific students are diverse in terms of family background and families' country of origin. A range of factors are implicated in poor academic performance by Pacific students: socio-economic constraints; significant family responsibilities and obligations that must be balanced with academic requirements; a lack of family experience with the needs of a student in terms of study time/space etc.; facility with English; cultural background including a reluctance to ask for assistance or speak in class because of deference to authority figures such as teachers. Offers a range of suggestions for teachers including: the importance of clarity and organisation of material; not over-estimating the level of general knowledge of students; awareness that English may be a second language for some; encouraging students to ask questions; exploring the possibility of tutorials for Pacific students only and/or for a contact person in a department specifically for Pacific students.

Scope: Based on compilation of reflections from past and present Pacific students at University of Auckland.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - achievement, education - secondary, education - tertiary, Pacific, overseas born, New Zealand born, migrants, interviews

E82. Pang, D., 2002 'Towards a framework for meeting the educational needs of Asian New Zealanders', New Zealand Journal of Counselling, 23, 1, 47-58.

Research focus/aims: Summarises school statistics on the growing number of Asian students in New Zealand schools; suggests some ways of meeting the educational needs of these young people; argues for an improvement in current knowledge through increased research on immigration and education.

Key findings/outcomes: Between 1996 and 2016, the number of Asian children aged 14 years and under is expected to grow from 48,000 to 87,000. By 2051, Asian young people will be about 11 percent of the student population. Systemic strategies to respond to the educational needs of these young people are lacking. The rights of Asian immigrants to an equal education with other young New Zealanders are enshrined in law and in educational policy. Schools have a significant role to play in enabling young Asian people to adjust to life in New Zealand. Current areas of concern regarding schools' abilities to help with this include: aligning school policies with demographic realities by encouraging a climate in which diversity is recognised and actively respected; including material in the curriculum to inculcate knowledge and understanding of new migrants; recognising the need for teachers and non-teaching staff to have professional development that helps them to operate well in the changing environment; recognising the resource of immigrant teachers and educationalists in New Zealand and working out ways to make best use of this; enhancing the school-home partnership through outreach to parents; working with local communities to develop school-community relationships. More research is needed in this field.

Scope: Makes use of Ministry of Education data, policy documents, local post-graduate and other research.

Keywords: education - school organisation, education - acculturation, education - intermediate, education - secondary, Asian, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, national data, documents

E83. Pasikale, A. and Tupuola, A.M., 1999, Creating successful students: An education project involving students and their community: Fehoahoaniga ke ikumanuia and akoga, Skill New Zealand, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To outline the Creating Successful Students programme, and report on its outcomes. The purpose of the programme was to develop strategies for encouraging students to adopt positive attitudes towards their education and to improve their academic achievement. The report (1) profiles the educational and occupational status of Tokelau students aged 16-21 in New Zealand; (2) outlines strategies for improving learning processes and outcomes for these students; (3) evaluates the strategies implemented at a study skills weekend run as part of the programme.

Participants: Tokelau students from the Hutt Valley region (n=30), aged 11-17 years. Some of their parents (n=8) also participated in the weekend as educators and presenters.

Key findings/outcomes: Strategies that were successful in enhancing students' attitudes to learning included: (1) Positive relationships/rapport with presenters and with other students. (2) High expectations from presenters about learners' being able to test their limitations and succeed. (3) Making learning fun. (4) Using high profile role models. (5) Capitalising on cultural capital through familiarity with learners' cultural backgrounds. The establishment of clear objectives between the community and the educators in relation to the programme was also regarded as important, including clear guidelines about the role of each in designing the intervention.

Scope: The programme was an initiative of the Pacific Islands Education Unit of Skill New Zealand. Evaluation forms from participants on the weekend were analysed for this report.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - secondary, Pacific, Tokelau, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, case study

E84. Passells, V., 2006 ''Pasifika' location and privilege: conceptual frameworks from first year Pasifika social work students', Social Work Review, 18, 1, 14-21.

Research focus/aims: To develop an understanding of the process by which Pasifika social work students draw links between social work theory and practice.

Participants: Six first year social work students of Samoan, Tonga and Cook Island heritage.

Key findings/outcomes: The illustrations presented show these students 'making sense' of their formal academic training by creating/exploring conceptual frameworks through which they express identity (in terms of multiple identities that include being island born and raised, island born and raised in Aotearoa, born and raised in Aotearoa, fluent or not in one's home island language. They also explore belonging in terms of mediating normative value systems (for example, in terms of ethnicity, the mainstream, relationship with Tangata Whenua).

Scope: Presents a snapshot of student responses to the invitation to draw links between theory and practice in 'reflection journals' kept during the first year of social work education at the Auckland College of Education Centre for Social Work.

Keywords: education - tertiary, education - learning styles, social services, Pacific, Samoan, Tongan, Cook Islands, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, case study

E85. Petelo, L. M., 2003 Fa'alogo i leo o le fanau: A qualitative study of the ways in which students of Samoan background experience their education within the University of Canterbury: A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch.

Research focus/aims: To explore the education experiences of students of Samoan background at the University of Canterbury through examining (1) dominant discourses that position these students in particular ways (e.g. within families, church communities and university) and participants' responses to these and (2) power relations produced and reproduced in the university through institutional policies and discursive practices. The study also considers methodological issues that arise from undertaking qualitative cross cultural research.

Participants: Samoan students (n=22) studying at University of Canterbury. (Also 7th form students (n=9) in Samoa and staff involved in preparing them for university.)

Key findings/outcomes: Dominant discourses and discursive practices in play at the university constitute the participants as 'Other'. The participants experience university as exclusive and isolating. Argues that the university needs to move beyond focusing on deficit accounts of 'barriers' to participation and should instead work out how to disrupt dominant discourses and explore new possibilities to change discursive practices that constitute Samoan students in ways that are isolating and detrimental to them in the institution. Offers a number of recommendations of a practical nature for change in the university.

Scope: In-depth individual and group interviews, analysis of university policy documents.

Keywords: education - acculturation, Tupuola tertiary, identity, research methods, Pacific, Samoan, migrant, New Zealand born, overseas born, interviews

E86. Ramsay, P., Sneddon, D., Grenfell, J., and Ford, I., 1983 'Successful and unsuccessful schools: A study in Southern Auckland', Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology, 19, 2, 272-304.

Research focus/aims: To investigate, with respect to schools in working class communities (1) what kinds of schools that act either as agencies for transformation or as agencies for the reproduction of social norms; (2) whether schools make significant differences in their pupils' behaviour, performance or attitudes.

Participants: Eight South Auckland schools (4 primary, 2 intermediate, 2 secondary); 75 percent of pupils were Polynesian.

Key findings/outcomes: 'Successful schools' have: (1) a curriculum emphasising forms of knowledge that are regarded as important by teachers, pupils and parents; (2) a pedagogical style that is designed to match the preferred learning style of pupils; (3) an organisational style in which staff, students and parents could articulate a common purpose; communication was two way and meaningful, and decision making power was shared.

Scope: Part of the Schools with Special Needs project; uses an ethnographic approach over 24 weeks.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - acculturation, education - school organisation, education - intermediate, education - secondary, Pacific, migrants, ethnography

E87. Silipa, S., 2004 "Fanaafi o fa'amalama": a light within the light: nurturing coolness & dignity in Samoan students' secondary school learning in Aotearoa/New Zealand. A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch.

Research focus/aims: To examine Samoan secondary school students' classroom experiences and social psychological-cultural learning construction. Explores, in particular, their coping strategies within the classroom and factors that facilitate their thinking and learning.

Participants: Samoan secondary school students (n=9) in years 11 and 12 in a suburban co-educational school in New Zealand.

Key findings/outcomes: Students experienced cultural conflict in their learning between fa'aSamoa and western culture. This conflict can be considered in terms of 'content wavering', which relates to students' interaction with the content of the curriculum, and 'feelings wavering', which relates to socio-cultural and psychological factors. Argues that the ways students cope reveal a process of 'nurturing coolness and dignity'. Coping strategies identified are threefold: (1) 'pacifying and apprenticeship', centring on a pattern of interpersonal engagements in the classroom; (2) 'crafting through guided participation', which relates to students collaborating through communication skills used in socio-culturally oriented common activities; (3) 'ascertaining in participatory appropriation' in which students transformed their ways of knowing of and responsibility for activities through their own participation.

Scope: Participant observation, group discussions, survey of students and teachers, and informal discussions with parents, teachers and students' peers.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - secondary, identity, research methods, Pacific, Samoan, migrant, New Zealand born, overseas born, ethnography

E88. Stevenson, L. E., 1985 The effects of individual and group contingencies on the on-task behaviour of European and Polynesian secondary school pupils, Department of Education, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To compare the effects of individual (IC) and group (GC) contingencies (see Scope below) on the on-task behaviour of New Zealand European and Polynesian secondary school students. Hypotheses: (1) IC treatment procedures would be more effective than GC procedures in increasing the on-task behaviours of New Zealand European students. (2) GC procedures would be more effective than IC in increasing the on-task behaviours of the Polynesian students.

Participants: Two female fourth form classes with a group of Polynesian students (n=10) and New Zealand European students (n=10) selected for observation.

Key findings/outcomes: IC treatment increased target behaviours only slightly for the European students, while GC treatment significantly increased target behaviours of the Polynesian students. The latter had higher rates of on-task behaviour than the Europeans under the GC treatment, while the Europeans had higher rates of on-task behaviour under the IC treatment.

Scope: Contingency treatments consisted of rewards/punishments assigned to an individual contingent on her behaviour (Individual Contingency) and assigned to a group or the class contingent on either individual or group behaviour (Group Contingency). Observers recorded incidents of target behaviours every day for five school weeks (25 days).

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - secondary, Pacific, migrants, tests

E89. Tofi, T., Flett, R., and Timutimu-Thorpe, H., 1996 'Problems faced by Pacific Island students at university in New Zealand: Some effects on academic performance and psychological wellbeing', New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 31, 1, 51-59.

Research focus/aims: To document the kinds of problems reported by a group of Pacific Island students studying at a New Zealand university; to clarify the impact of these problems on academic performance and general psychological wellbeing; to examine whether these impacts are moderated by satisfaction with available social support.

Participants: Pacific Island nation students enrolled at Massey University from Western Samoa (n=19), Tonga (n=15), Fiji (n=13), Papua New Guinea (n=7), Vanuatu (n=3), Tuvalu (n=2) and one each from Niue Island and Marshall Island. Total = 61.

Key findings/outcomes: The highest ratings for problems detailed in the problem scale related to high workload, worry about courses, feelings of stress. Other frequently occurring problems included those associated with lack of motivation, pressure from parents, family and friends to do well, feelings of homesickness. Findings were: (1) Problems are inversely associated with academic performance and psychological wellbeing. (2) Social support is positively associated with psychological wellbeing. (3) The relationship between academic performance and social support is not significant. (4) There is no evidence of an interaction between social support and problems.

Scope: Instruments included a problems scale, a social support questionnaire, an academic performance scale, a psychological wellbeing scale.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - tertiary, family - intergenerational relationships, social services, Pacific, Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Tuvalu, Niue, Marshall Islands, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

E90. Victoria University of Wellington Research Team, 2005, Homework Club: Strengthening refugee youth achievement, Department of Geography, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To provide information and recommendations about improving student participation and attendance at a Homework Club established in Wellington in 2004 to support refugee high school students to improve their educational performance and to encourage them into higher education.

Participants: A participatory action research project carried out in partnership between Victoria University students, secondary school refugee students (n=33) and the facilitators of the Homework Club.

Key findings/outcomes: Key issues that arose for the success of the Club included relationships between key groups, awareness of the Club by potential participants, effective involvement by volunteers and good organisation.

Recommendations: (1) Strengthen relationships and increase contact between teachers, parents, students, and Homework Club facilitators. (2) Raise awareness of the Club in schools. (3) More effective co-ordination of volunteers. (4) Continuation of participatory processes. (5) A more structured approach in the Club, including a system for keeping some records about those who attend and what their needs are, as well as introducing a Starter Pack for new attendees.

Scope: Participatory workshops were held with migrant and refugee students in ESOL classes at three Wellington secondary schools. For other articles on homework clubs see:

• Fusitu'a, L. and Coxon, E., 1998 'Ko e 'Ulungaanga Faka-Tonga mo e Ako Lelei: Tongan culture and academic achievement', New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 33, 1, 23-38 [E51].

• McCarthy, A., 1997 'Homework is where the heart is; Homework away from home; Primary perspective', New Zealand Education Review, 2, 28,18-19 & 24.

• New Zealand Education Gazette, 2001 'Refugee work', New Zealand Education Gazette, 80, 13, 10.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - secondary, refugees, case study

E91. White, C. and Gray, S., 1999 'Creating a culture of respect: a state secondary school's journey', SET: Research Information for Teachers, 1, 1, 1-4.

Research focus/aims: This state school is one of New Zealand's most multi-cultural secondary schools. The promotion of a 'culture of respect' is part of the school's philosophy. The research asked (1) Do students and staff acknowledge that aspects of a culture of respect are evident in the school? (2) Does teaching and learning remain central to the school given the emphasis on this culture of respect?

Participants: Staff and students at the school.

Key findings/outcomes: A wide range of students rated valuing cultural diversity and culturally inclusive instruction highly. The group that did not value cultural diversity as highly as others were boys who spoke only one language. Students reported that teachers were central to the implementation of culturally inclusive instruction that capitalised on linguistic and cultural diversity in a class. Teaching and learning did remain of central importance to the students.

Recommendations: (1) Staff development in 'learning through language' techniques. (2) A rich languages programme is essential for developing a culture of respect. (3) Publicise the success of former students. (4) Enable students to feel part of the whole school. (5) Highlight extra-curricula successes. (6) Foster positive links with the local media. (7) Develop structures of power-sharing and devolved management.

Scope: One group of staff and two groups of students were interviewed. A random selection of students (n=140) completed an initial questionnaire, a further random selection of students (n=377) completed a larger, revised questionnaire.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - acculturation, education - school organisation, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, New Zealand born, overseas born, survey

E92. Whyte, B., 2005 'Collaborating with diverse cultures', Fraser, D., Moltzen R., and Ryba, K., (eds) Learners with special needs in Aotearoa/New Zealand, Southbank, Victoria: Thomson/Dunmore Press.

Research focus/aims: To discuss the implications for schools of current demographic trends; to outline research findings about the characteristics of teachers and schools that work effectively with diverse cultures

Data: International and New Zealand research literature on education in the context of diverse cultures.

Key findings/outcomes: Some key principles that have emerged from research include: (1) The relationship between teacher and students is fundamental to the development of a positive classroom culture, and the valuing of students' cultural backgrounds is a critical element of this. (2) Schools have taken two pathways towards adopting positive school cultures in relation to cultural diversity: the 'accommodation pathway' in which schools work out ways to acknowledge the cultural diversity in their communities and incorporate appropriate activities into their programmes; and the 'reculturing pathway', which involves changing the school culture to incorporate the cultural aspirations and practices of the community. Notes that most schools concerned about cultural diversity have taken the former path. Gives case studies of effective results from the accommodation pathway in a primary and a secondary school, and the reculturing pathway in a middle school.

Scope: Short literature review.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - school organisation, education - secondary, migrants, refugees, overseas born, New Zealand born, review

E93. Wilton, M., 1999 'Refugee NESB students in New Zealand - a home tutor's perspective', English in Aotearoa, 38, 27-28.

Research focus/aims: To identify the obstacles to effective learning for refugee young people.

Key findings/outcomes: Many refugee students are likely to be suffering trauma; financial resources are likely to be slim, making access to some of the educational possibilities in their new context difficult; unfamiliarity with many forms of technology. The main problem identified here is that refugee young people are likely to have major gaps in their learning. This means that they struggle with both language and content. Argues that the policy of age placement in schools, while appropriate for many NESB students, can be highly detrimental to refugee students.

Scope: Reflections on professional practice as a home tutor for refugee students.

Keywords: education - ESOL, education - learning styles, education - secondary, refugees, reflections on professional practice

E94. Zhang, S. Y., 1997 The cultural dimensions in education: perception of migrant and local students to educational attitudes. A research report presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master in Business Studies at Massey University.

Research focus/aims: To examine the extent to which education objectives, attitudes to post-graduate teaching methods, and general attitudes towards management training and education differ between recent migrants and New Zealand born and educated students. (Abstract only accessed.)

Participants: Post-graduate students (n=110) in management studies at Massey University, Albany.

Key findings/outcomes: A relationship between cultural background and education was identified with differences observed between European students and Chinese students, and between New Zealander and migrant groups. Different preferences were identified between these groups for educational objectives and course assessment methods. The longer migrants spent in New Zealand, the more their educational objectives shifted towards those of long-term residents of New Zealand.

Scope: Methods used in this study are not specified in the abstract.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - tertiary, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born

Education - miscellaneous

E95. Butcher, A. P., 2004 'Educate, consolidate, immigrate: Educational immigration in Auckland, New Zealand', Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 45, 2, 255-278.

Research focus/aims: Explores the complexities involved in the relationships between immigration, globalisation, education and government policy in New Zealand.

Key findings/outcomes: Provides a contextual framework for understanding export education in New Zealand, and looks at Auckland as a case study. Argues that immigrant communities can act as indirect recruiters of international students, but international students are also increasingly becoming permanent residents. This situation has significant resourcing implications for educational institutions, particularly when the financial incentives that international fee-paying students bring to an institution are absent.

Scope: Draws on New Zealand research relating to international students' experiences nationally and in North Shore City. Also draws on research on New Zealand's export education market, analysis of immigration data and 2001 Census data.

Keywords: education - tertiary, migrants, overseas born, national data

E96. Casey, C., 1993 'Suspensions and expulsions in New Zealand state schools', New Zealand Annual Review of Education, 3, 253-283.

Research focus/aims: Examines statutory requirements for suspending or expelling students in state schools; analyses data on notified suspensions and expulsions; discusses problems faced by principals and boards of trustees regarding suspensions and expulsions.

Data: Ministry of Education data on suspensions and expulsions.

Key findings/outcomes: Between 1992 and 1993, Maori and Pacific student suspensions increased in number while European student suspensions decreased.

Scope: Information on ethnic background of suspended students has been available since mid-1991. This part of the analysis therefore covers the period mid-1991 to 1993.

Keywords: education - secondary, Pacific, Maori, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, national data

E97. Chung, R. CY., Walkey, F. K., and Bemak, F., 1997 'A comparison of achievement and aspirations of New Zealand Chinese and European students', Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 28, 4, 481-489.

Research focus/aims: To compare the educational and occupational aspirations and achievements of New Zealand born Chinese students with those of their European peers; to compare the two groups of students' perceptions of their parents' aspirations and expectations for them. It was expected (from the literature) that Chinese students and their parents would hold higher aspirations and expectations than their European counterparts.

Participants: Fifth form (year 11) Chinese (n=108) and European (n=203) students from 25 state secondary schools in four New Zealand cities.

Key findings/outcomes: No difference was found in actual School Certificate achievement between the two groups, however, the Chinese students did display significantly higher educational and occupational aspirations than their European peers. Prior to sitting the exam, the two groups displayed similar perceptions of their own academic ability, but after the exam, the Chinese students were more likely to rate their abilities poorly (and to express dissatisfaction with their exam results) than their European counterparts. These attitudes are consistent with parental attitudes and expectations: the parents of the Chinese students were more likely to express dissatisfaction with the exam results than were the parents of the European students. The career aspirations of the Chinese parents for their children were also significantly higher than those of the European parents. Concludes that the findings illustrate a close relationship between the educational and occupational aspirations of parents and their children. Also concludes that parental pressure to succeed may have an adverse effect on Chinese students' perceptions of their own abilities. This has implications for the practice of mental health professionals and of educators.

Scope: Two open-ended, self report questionnaires, one administered six months prior to students' participation in the School Certificate exam, and one administered at the beginning of the year following the exam. A chi-square analysis of the data was undertaken. See also:

• Chung, R. CY., 1988 Achievement motivation stress and coping in Chinese and European fifth form students, PhD, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington.

• Chung, R. CY. and Walkey, F. H., 1989 'Educational and achievement aspirations of New Zealand Chinese and European secondary school students', Youth and Society, 21, 2, 139-152.

Keywords: education - aspirations, education - achievement, education - secondary, family - intergenerational relationships, Chinese, Pakeha, New Zealand born, survey

E98. Hirsh, W. and Scott, R. A., 1988 Getting it right: Aspects of ethnicity and equity in New Zealand education, Office of the Race Relations Conciliator, Auckland.

An edited collection that focuses on Principle 3 - The Curriculum shall be non-racist - of the 1987 Curriculum Review. Includes an overview of submissions to the Review, a range of contributions on the principles, concepts and issues associated with Principle 3, and a set of contributions on relevant practices and programmes taking place in New Zealand primary and secondary schools.

Keywords: education - school organisation, documentary analysis

E99. McIntosh, R., 1997 'Asian students in New Zealand education', New Zealand Education Gazette, 76, 16, 1-2.

Research focus/aims: Profiles changes in the Asian student population over the period 1994-1997.

Key findings/outcomes: The Asian student population is diverse in terms of origin (Chinese and Indian students make up the majority, but a wide range of other ethnicities is also present) and family background, including the children of business migrants, refugees and families coming to New Zealand in reunification programmes. Within this population, 64 percent of Asian school students and 60 percent of Asian tertiary students lived in Auckland in the mid-1990s. Asian students spent slightly longer on average in secondary school than students from other ethnic groups, and were more likely to leave with Year 13 qualifications. They performed well in a range of subjects, especially mathematics and chemistry, but less well in English. They were more likely to go on to tertiary education. The article advocates recruiting Asian students into teaching in greater numbers to meet the needs of the growing Asian school population.

Scope: Uses data from a range of official sources.

Keywords: education - secondary, Asian, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, national data

E100. Nash, R., 2000 'Educational inequality: The special case of Pacific students', Social Policy Journal of New Zealand Te Puna Whakaaro, 15, 69-86.

Research focus/aims: To investigate why the achievement levels of Pacific school students are generally mismatched with their high aspirations.

Participants: Pacific secondary school students.

Key findings/outcomes: Among Pacific students, there is a significant mismatch between aspirations and levels of attainment. Argues that an important reason for this is that specific forms of cultural capital are required to use the school system successfully, and Pacific families do not possess sufficient of this capital to do this. Nevertheless, the young Pacific people interviewed for this study recounted very high parental expectations regarding their education. Argues that best educational practice to address this mismatch will emerge from organic relations between schools and Pacific communities. Through these relations, schools should recognise what is necessary to education within Pacific culture.

Scope: Part of the Progress at School project, which monitored the educational attainment of 5,400 students from Year 9 through to the end of their secondary school education. Interviews with students were also carried out. The full study also included Pakeha, Maori, and Asian students.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - aspirations, education - secondary, family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, migrants, New Zealand born, school data, interviews

E101. Nash, R., 2002 'Inequalities in educational attainment: Theories and evidence for social workers in schools', Social Work Review, 14, 3, 22-26.

Research focus/aims: To examine contested theories of differential educational attainment among New Zealand school students, in particular, whether teacher expectations or family resources are more important in lower educational achievement by Maori and Pacific students.

Participants: 15 year old New Zealand school students.

Key findings/outcomes: The PISA data indicate that most teachers are viewed by most students in favourable terms rather than as having low expectations of them. The data finds that family resources and practices are crucial to academic attainment.

Scope: Analyses results of OECD PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) 2000 study.

Keywords: education - achievement, education - secondary, Pacific, Maori, migrants, New Zealand born, national data

E102. Watson, S., Hughes, D., Lauder, H., Strathdee, R., and Simiyu, I., 1997 'Ethnicity and school choice', New Zealand Annual Review of Education, 7, 95-110.

Research focus/aims: Explores ethnicity in relation to school choice, particularly in the context of the removal of school zones in New Zealand. Asks whether Maori and Pacific parents/whanau/aiga had patterns of choice that differed from those of Pakeha parents/families and whether in this context they were able to access their preferred school.

Participants: 2000 Maori (8 percent), Pacific (5 percent), Pakeha (81 percent) and 'Other' (6 percent) (mainly Asian) parents.

Key findings/outcomes: The ability to exercise school choice was found to be unequally distributed across ethnic groups, with Pakeha families more likely than others to access their preferred school.

Scope: Draws on data collected for the Smithfield Project in 1992.

Keywords: education - secondary, Pacific, Maori, Pakeha, Asian, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, survey

E103. Wylie, C., Hipkins, R.H.E., and Janet, R., 2006 Growing independence: Competent learners @14, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To chart the development of students' competence in mathematics, literacy, and logical problem-solving as well as in social and communication skills. To explore students' home and education experiences. To identify factors that account for differences in patterns of development and performance in these competencies.

Participants: School students aged 14 years (n=500) from the greater Wellington region. Numbers of Pacific and Asian students in the study are small.

Key findings/outcomes: Findings with respect to ethnicity: (1) Maori and Pacific students were more likely than Pakeha/European or Asian students to run up against school rules; (2) Pacific students were less likely than others to be engaged in organised sport, (3) Asian and Pakeha students were more likely than Pacific or Maori students to be involved in a wide range of activities (combining sport, reading and the arts).

Scope: A longitudinal study begun in 1993 when participants were five years old. Small numbers of Pacific and Asian students in the sample mean that conclusions must be drawn with caution.

Keywords: education - secondary, Pacific, Asian, New Zealand born, surveys, tests

Employment

E104. Boyd, C., n.d., Migrants in New Zealand: An analysis of labour market outcomes for working aged migrants using 1996 and 2001 Census data, Department of Labour, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To compare labour market outcomes of recent and long-term migrants with those who are New Zealand born using the 1996 and 2001 Population Censuses.

Key findings/outcomes: Analysis of labour force status and study attendance among migrants aged 15-24 years found that: (1) Migrants increased their share of the total population in the 15-24 years age group from 12.7 percent in 1996 to 17.3 percent in 2001. (2) Migrants in this age group who had lived in New Zealand for ten years or more had labour market outcomes similar to those of their New Zealand born counterparts. (3) Recent migrants aged 15-19 years had employment rates of 29 percent, less than one-half the rate for their New Zealand born counterparts. (4) More than 60 percent of recent migrants were not in the labour force. (5) In 2001, employment rates were lowest for recent migrants from NE Asia, SE Asia and the Pacific Islands, while rates for recent migrants from the UK, Ireland and Australia were similar to those of New Zealand born. (6) All migrant groups had higher rates of participation in study than New Zealand born except those born in the Pacific Islands.

Scope: Analysis of Census data from 1996 and 2001.

Keywords: employment, migrants, overseas born, national data

E105. Dakuvula, J., 1984 Affirmative action for minority ethnic groups at the Wellington Student Job Centre during the summer vacation, 1983-1984, The Wellington Student Job Centre, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To evaluate the effectiveness of the work of the Wellington Student Job Centre in terms of affirmative action (AA) policies involving tertiary students and trainees from minority ethnic groups and international students from the Pacific and Asia.

Participants: Students (n=38) from the following ethnic backgrounds: India (n=10), China (n=10), Pacific (n=10), Maori (n=5) and others (n=3).

Key findings/outcomes: Makes a range of recommendations for the running of the Centre. There was general support among participants for the AA policies run by the Centre. Many of the students thought that it was harder for them to obtain vacation employment than for Pakeha students. Previous success in job hunting through the Centre appeared to be more effective in bringing students to the Centre than knowledge of its AA policies.

Scope: A small scale study in which students participated in a structured interview.

Keywords: employment - job-hunting, Indian, Chinese, Pacific, Maori, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews

E106. Didham, R.A., 1989 Questions of identity: New Zealand born and Island born Pacific Island Polynesians, two populations, Department of Geography, University of Canterbury, Christchurch.

Research focus/aims: To investigate the structure and characteristics of Pacific Island Polynesians resident in New Zealand in 1986. To identify whether there are substantial differences between New Zealand born and Island born residents. To consider whether it is valid to treat locally born Pacific Island Polynesians as a separate population from Island born immigrants for the purposes of demographic analysis.

Data: 1986 Census data on New Zealand born and Island born Pacific Island residents of New Zealand. Total population of Pacific Islanders in New Zealand in 1986 was approximately one-half New Zealand born and one-half Island born.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) The New Zealand born population was younger than the Island born population, with approximately two-thirds of the former aged under 16 years. (2) There was a consistently higher unemployment rate among Island born young adults than among those born in New Zealand. (3) Those employed in both groups were heavily concentrated in a narrow range of industries (particularly manufacturing), and this was particularly true of the Island born population. The latter group was more susceptible to the vagaries of the labour market. (4) The incomes of the Island born were lower on average than of those born in New Zealand and rose more slowly across the age groups. (5) New Zealand born Pacific Islanders tended to be better represented in higher skill groups at earlier ages than those born in the Islands.

Scope: Analysis of 1986 Census data.

Keywords: employment, Pacific, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, national data

E107. Ho, E.S., Chen, Y.Y., Kim, S.N., and Young, Y., 1996, In search of a better future: Report of a survey on post-school education and employment choices among Asian adolescent migrants, University of Waikato, Hamilton.

Research focus/aims: To examine the attitudes, experiences and future education/employment plans of migrant students from Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea. To consider the issues that confront these young people in seeking employment in New Zealand.

Participants: Secondary school students (n=639) aged 16-17 years from four groups: Chinese immigrants born in Hong Kong (n=220) or Taiwan (n=147), Korean immigrants born in South Korea (n=74), and Europeans born in New Zealand (n=198). Students were drawn from ten Auckland schools. Parents also participated (n=302).

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Most Asian students wished to complete a university education with many planning post-graduate degrees overseas. (2) Most have positive attitudes towards education in New Zealand. (3) Problems faced included learning English, adjusting to the curriculum and teaching methods used in New Zealand, and some also mentioned growing racial tension in their schools. (4) Most have high occupational aspirations and many aspire to self-employment. They are looking for good salaries and working conditions, the opportunity to be helpful to others and to exercise leadership, gain recognition and acquire specialist skills. (5) Many, especially female students, expect to seek employment overseas both for better career opportunities and for life experiences. Some intend to return to New Zealand. Some are keeping their options open about where they will work. (5) When considering work in New Zealand, main concerns include unemployment, the language barrier and racial discrimination. (6) Uncertainty about the future may be linked to the difficulties some of their parents experienced in seeking work in New Zealand. This concern fuels the high standards these young people set for themselves.

Scope: Part of a large study to investigate aspects of the adaptation, and the educational and occupational aspirations, of Chinese and Korean adolescent immigrants who had come to New Zealand since the late 1980s. Data were gathered through a structured survey using two self-completion questionnaires (one for students, one for their parents), and through group interviews with 240 students from the original sample. A comparison group of New Zealand born European students (n=200) and their parents was also surveyed. See Ho (1996) "Researching post-school education and employment choices among Asian adolescent migrants: a report on methodological issues" Hamilton: University of Waikato. Population Studies Centre, for a report giving full details of the background and methodology of the study, including the research design, survey instrument, sampling plan and data collection techniques.

This study is also reported in:

• Ho, E.S. and Chen Y.Y., 1998 'Post school employment choices of East Asian adolescent migrants', Labour, Employment and Work in New Zealand 1996, Conference Proceedings, P. Morrison (ed), Victoria University of Wellington.

• Ho, E.S., Kim, S.N., et al., 1998 'Chinese and Korean migrants in Auckland: Perspectives of employment prospects among adolescents'. Proceedings of the New Zealand Geographical Anniversary Conference, New Zealand Geographical Society, Christchurch.

For an analysis of the questionnaires returned by parents in this study, see:

• Ho, E.S. and Lidgard, J.M., 1998 'Give us a chance: the employment experiences of new settlers from East Asia', Labour, Employment and Work in New Zealand, 1996, P. Morrison (ed), Wellington, 126-132.

Keywords: education - aspirations, education - secondary, employment, Asian, Hong Kong, Taiwanese, South Korean, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, surveys, interviews

E108. Jones, A., 1987 ''At school I've got the chance I've got': some Pacific Island girls' knowledge about school and work', W. Korndorffer, Transition: Perspectives on School-to-Work in New Zealand, 169-192, Palmerston North: Dunmore Press.

Research focus/aims: To examine some of the processes, both ideological and pedagogical, through which schooling contributes to social reproduction, drawing on the commonsense knowledge and classroom practices of two groups of fifth form girls with different social class backgrounds. To examine, in particular, the employment aspiration of these young women.

Participants: Two groups of girls in an inner city all-girls school in New Zealand: one of working-class Pacific Island girls, and one of middle-class Pakeha girls.

Key findings/outcomes: Findings include that the Pacific girls were very 'pro-education' because it was seen as the pathway to qualifications and hence to a 'real, decent job'. The girls' arguments about their chances of succeeding in school, and hence of getting a good job, reflect a strong belief that these are possible primarily through individual psychological and cognitive attributes. Observes the contradictions between this thinking and structural realities for Pacific peoples in the New Zealand labour market.

Scope: An ethnographic study in which the author spent over a year as a student/researcher in the school. Data were gathered through participant observation, interviews, conversations and classroom observation. For other work by Jones from this project, see above [E66].

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - secondary, employment - aspirations, Pacific, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, ethnography

E109. Pasikale, A., 1996, Seen but not heard: Voices of Pacific Island learners in second chance education and the cultural differences impacting on their aspirations, opportunities and participation, Pacific Island Education Unit, Education and Training Support Agency, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To make visible the stories of Pacific Island learners in second-chance education; to provide information relevant to policy and practice in relation to education for Pacific Island learners; to address current gaps in research-based knowledge in this area.

Participants: Pacific Island participants in Training Opportunities Programme (TOPS) courses recruited from Pacific Islands PTEs in the Auckland and Wellington regions (n=80, with 40 men and 40 women).

Key findings/outcomes: Learners had a diverse range of learning experiences and learning preferences. Teacher facilitated learning was highly valued, and generally preferred over learner centred models Participants also said that practice was essential to their learning. Their aspirations and participation in learning reflect the aspirations and expectations of their families. Contributing to a families' economic wellbeing was a major motivation for success in education. The importance of teacher empathy and awareness of participants' cultural worlds was stressed. New Zealand born and educated participants preferred learning experiences that were involving and active, while older migrant learners preferred a more passive learning environment. Both groups had difficulty with the disparities between traditional cultural expectations of behaviour in a learning situation, and teachers' expectations in the classroom. Concludes that attention must be given to pedagogies in transition education, particularly around preferences for teacher- and learner-centred styles; family and community involvement is to be encouraged; more research is needed on Pacific Island learners and, in particular, on cultural differences among members of different Pacific Island cultures (analysis by individual cultural/national group was beyond the scope of the research).

Scope: Structured qualitative interviews generally conducted with two researchers and two participants in order to create dialogue between researchers and participants. For work relating to adult education and training for Pacific people, see also:

• Tupuola, AM. (1997). Pacific Island Education and Training: A selected annotated bibliography. Pacific Island Education Unit, Education and Training Support Agency, Wellington.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - tertiary, employment, Pacific, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews

Health and social services

This section lists research that relates to the third Settlement Strategy goal: that migrants, refugees and their families are able to "access appropriate information and responsive services that are available to the wider community (for example, housing, education and services for families)". Most of the research listed here relates to health and health services. As noted in the opening commentary of this report, very little research was found on other types of services for these young people. Material is included here about the health of young refugees and migrants that does not refer specifically to services, however, it is included because it details the state of mental and physical health of these young people and so has implications for service provision.

H1. Abbott, M.W., Wong, S., Williams, M., Au, M., and Young, W., 1999 'Chinese migrants' mental health and adjustment to life in New Zealand', Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 33, 1, 13-21.

Research focus/aims: To consider the relative importance of a range of predictors of (self rated) adjustment and psychiatric morbidity of recent Chinese migrants to New Zealand.

Participants: Recent Chinese migrants (mainly from Taiwan and Hong Kong) living in Auckland.

Key findings/outcomes: The overall prevalence of mental ill-health in this sample was similar to that of the general population, with most respondents not reporting major adjustment problems. Predictors of poor adjustment included unemployment, low English proficiency, lack of university education, younger age, shorter residency, expectations not being met and regrets about moving to New Zealand. Predictors of minor mental disorder included being female, being young, regretting making the move to New Zealand. Young people whose parents were absent had higher rates of mental disorder.

Scope: 271 participants aged 15 years and over responded to a postal questionnaire that included the Chinese Health Questionnaire.

Keywords: health - mental, Hong Kong Chinese, Taiwanese, migrants, overseas born, survey

H2. Action for Children and Youth Aotearoa, 2003 Refugee and asylum seeking children and youth in Aotearoa (Appendix 6), ACYA, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To examine the situation of children who are refugees or asylum seekers in New Zealand in terms of eligibility for, and access to, a wide range of services and forms of assistance.

Participants: A range of individuals active in the NGO sector with experience and knowledge in assisting refugees and asylum seekers; children and families from the refugee and asylum seeker communities.

Key findings/outcomes: At the time of writing, this report found: (1) There were no data collected by government departments identifying numbers of children who are from refugee or asylum seeking backgrounds. (2) There was no process for monitoring or evaluating the status of these children and the services provided for them. (3) There were no specialised services dedicated to supporting their physical and psychological recovery and social reintegration. (4) There was no overarching national policy for provision and co-ordination of services to these young people. The report makes a number of specific recommendations in relation to these findings.

Scope: Interviews were held with a range of people. The report is an Appendix in the 2nd NGO report to United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.

Keywords: services, health, refugees, asylum seekers, interviews

H3. Ahmad, Y., Woolaston, S., and Patel, S., 2000 'Child safety in Indian families', Social Work Now, 15, 13-19.

Research focus/aims: To outline issues associated with the care and protection of children as faced by social workers who work with Indian families in New Zealand

Key findings/outcomes: Key issues include: isolation; levels of traditionality within the family, particularly in terms of gender and age; problems for young people who must live cross-culturally; strong incentives for families to not disclose problems and therefore to not engage in help-seeking behaviour; the use of violence as one method of regulating family behaviour. Stresses the importance of non-Indian social workers consulting with Indian workers or cultural advisors, and to engage in continuing education regarding cultural and religious norms that are important for Indian families.

Scope: Reflections on social work practice by the authors.

Keywords: health - physical, health - services, Indian, migrant, overseas born, New Zealand born, reflections on professional practice

H4. Au, P., 2002 'Working with Chinese migrant students: Mental health issues and guidelines for counsellors', New Zealand Journal of Counselling, 23, 1, 66-73.

Research focus/aims: How can mainstream counsellors work effectively with Chinese students?

Key findings/outcomes: Argues that, because mental health can be a sensitive topic for Chinese people, it is not uncommon for Chinese students to present for help with mental health problems only when they are already quite sick, to present with physical symptoms or practical problems rather than mental health problems, and often not to seek help of their own accord, but rather through their parents. Identifies a range of issues that can contribute to mental ill-health among Chinese adolescents. Suggests some guidelines for counsellors around the importance of the credibility of the counsellor and the key role played by the family for Chinese adolescents.

Scope: Draws on international literature and own experience as a counsellor.

Keywords: health - mental, health - services, Chinese, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, reflection on professional practice

H5. Badkar, J.U., 2002 Ethnic differences in sexual knowledge, attitudes and behaviour of first year Otago University students. A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the degree of Master of Public Health at the University of Otago, Dunedin.

Research focus/aims: To examine ethnic differences in the sexual knowledge, attitudes and behaviour of first year Otago University students.

Participants: First year university students aged 16-20 years from a range of ethnic groups categorised as 'European', 'Maori/Pacific Island', and 'Asian'.

Key findings/outcomes: Asian students were least likely to have had sexual intercourse. They also had less permissive sexual values and perceptions than the students in the other two groups. Among Asian students born overseas, those with longer residency in New Zealand (arriving in New Zealand during or prior to 1994) had more liberal sexual attitudes than those who had arrived more recently. Those in the former group were also more likely to have had sexual intercourse and to answer questions on sexual knowledge accurately.

Scope: Used a cross sectional postal survey of a randomly chosen sample (65 percent response rate).

Keywords: health - physical, education - tertiary, Maori, Pacific, Asian, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

H6. Baxter, J., Kokaua, J., Wells, E, McGee M., and Oakley Browne, M., 2006 'Ethnic comparisons of the 12 month prevalence of mental disorders and treatment contact in Te Rau Hinengaro: The New Zealand Mental Health Survey', Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 40, 905-913.

Research focus/aims: To use data from the New Zealand Mental Health Survey to compare major ethnic groups (Maori, Pacific and Other) for the 12 month prevalence of mental disorders and 12 month treatment contact.

Participants: New Zealanders aged 16 years and over across major ethnic groups (Maori, n=2595; Pacific, n=2236, Other, mainly European, n=8161).

Key findings/outcomes: A higher prevalence of 12 month mental disorders was found among Maori and (to a lesser extent) Pacific people than among Others although differences were reduced once data were adjusted for age, sex, education and household income. Maori and Pacific people had a higher prevalence of bipolar disorder than Others, but Pacific people had the lowest prevalence of major depressive disorder. Pacific people (and to a lesser extent, Maori) with a disorder were less likely to have visited a mental health service than Other groups.

Scope: Used the World Health Organisation World Mental Health Survey Initiative version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI 3.0) with a nationally representative sample in a face to face household survey. Response rate: 73.3 percent.

Keywords: health - mental, health - services, Maori, Pacific, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

H7. Beautrais, A.L., Wells, J.E., McGee M.A., and Browne, M.A.O., 2006 'Suicidal behaviour in Te Rau Hinengaro: The New Zealand Mental Health Survey', Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 40, 10, 896-904.

Research focus/aims: To use data from the New Zealand Mental Health Survey to identify the prevalence and correlates of suicidal behaviour among New Zealanders aged 16 years and over.

Participants: Sample of 12,992 New Zealanders aged 16 years and over.

Key findings/outcomes: After adjustment for sociodemographic factors such as age, sex, education and household income, there were no differences by ethnicity in suicidal ideation, but both Maori and Pacific people had higher risks of suicide plans and attempts compared with non-Maori and non-Pacific people. In general, risks of plans and attempts were associated with mental disorder and with socio-demographic disadvantage. Most of those with suicidal behaviours had not visited a health professional for mental health problems during the period that they were suicidal.

Scope: Used the World Health Organisation World Mental Health Survey Initiative version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI 3.0) with a nationally representative sample in a face to face household survey.

Keywords: health - mental, health - services, Maori, Pacific, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

H8. Besley, T., 2003 'A risky business: A teenager's dilemma in disclosing sexual abuse', New Zealand Journal of Counselling, 24, 2, 11-24.

Research focus/aims: To reflect on the practice of a school counsellor when a teenage Pacific woman discloses sexual abuse by her European stepfather.

Key findings/outcomes: To prevent re-victimising the child through the policies and procedures designed to assist her, it is necessary to develop a genuinely child-centred approach in which counsellors consider the cultural, legal and ethical complexities involved. In particular, counsellors need to consider the ways in which all members of a family system are affected by the disclosure.

Scope: A case study in which a school counsellor reflects on her own practice.

Keywords: health - mental, family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, migrants, case study, reflection on professional practice

H9. Cheung, V., Nguyen J.L., and Yeung, P.H.Y., 2004 Alcohol and drugs in New Zealand, Alcohol and Drug Advisory Council, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To identify, by means of a review of New Zealand and international literature, factors associated with an increased risk of alcohol and drug misuse among New Zealand's Asian population. To identify concerns relevant to this issue relating to current alcohol and drug services. Contains a section on Asian youth and alcohol and drug use, drawing on international literature.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Socio-cultural factors may be important in alcohol and drug use among the Asian population. (2) Wide cultural variations exist across different Asian communities in relation to alcohol and drug consumption and related disorders. (3) More research is needed on whether post-migration issues affect consumption and misuse of drugs and alcohol. (4) Asian people appear not to use alcohol and drug related services to any great extent, although data on this is limited because of the tendency for this group to be categorised as 'Other' in research studies. (5) Asian people tend to seek help as a last resort.

Recommendations: (1) More research is needed on all aspects of this issue as very little is known of the situation in New Zealand. (2) Up-take of services could be improved through removal of language barriers, provision of culturally appropriate services, awareness raising in Asian communities.

Scope: Literature review.

Keywords: health - mental, health - physical, Asian, migrant, New Zealand born, overseas born, review

H10. Chu, K., Cheung, V.Y.M., and Tan, R.H.K., 2001 'Working with the Chinese in New Zealand', Social Work Now, 18, 12-18.

Research focus/aims: To outline issues associated with the care and protection of children as faced by social workers who work with Chinese families in New Zealand

Key findings/outcomes: Key issues include: levels of traditionality (particularly with regard to the importance of filial piety and its implications for the behaviour of women and children) within the family; strong incentives for families to not disclose problems (to protect the family name and because self restraint is highly valued) and therefore to not engage in help-seeking behaviour. Discusses core family values including harmony, self control, financial security. Stresses the importance of non-Chinese social workers consulting with Chinese advisors. Calls for the development of family services that are congruent with Chinese cultural beliefs and values.

Scope: Reflections on social work practice by the authors.

Keywords: health - physical, health - services, family - intergenerational relationships, Chinese, migrants, overseas born, reflection on professional practice

H11. Chung, R.C.Y., 1988 'Chinese students - model students: A myth or reality?' New Settlers and Multicultural Education Issues, 5, 1, 17-19.

Research focus/aims: Addresses the pressure to succeed faced by Chinese students in New Zealand from parents, peers and teachers and argues for better understanding of these students' experiences.

Key findings/outcomes: Analysis of 'model student' stereotype applied to Chinese students and the detrimental effect this may have on students' mental health. Concludes that these students may experience greater emotional distress than is commonly thought but that their cultural background tends to disguise this. Further concludes that the 'model student' stereotype leads teachers to assume that these students are coping/succeeding and do not need additional assistance.

Scope: Reflective analytical piece based on New Zealand school qualification data and US research on Chinese students.

Keywords: health - mental, health - services, education - acculturation, education - secondary, Chinese, overseas born, literature review, national data

H12. Dickinson, P., 2003 'The phenomenon of 'mocking': The voices and experiences of boys in a single-sex school', New Zealand Journal of Counselling, 24, 1, 1-18.

Research focus/aims: Explores the impact of 'mocking' behaviours affecting boys in Years 7-10 in a single sex high school with a predominantly Pacific student population. Looks at boys' perceptions and experiences of mocking by other pupils and by teachers; their responses to being mocked; their thoughts about how the school could address this issue.

Participants: 439 Year 7-10 boys including Samoan, Maori, Cook Island Maori, Tongan, Niuean, New Zealand European and Other. Teachers in the school.

Key findings/outcomes: 'Mocking' involves the practice of exercising solidarity by making a joke of others' differences from the norms of the group. Mocking (by other pupils and by teachers) emerged as a significant issue for pupils at the school. Ethnic minority pupils (in this case Maori and New Zealand European) were particularly vulnerable to being mocked. Most boys experienced mental health distress as a result of being mocked, with the minority group pupils being the most badly affected. Argues that the boys needed positive and respectful adult role models, and that they would benefit from having Pacific teachers who modelled appropriate humorous behaviour. Successful strategies adopted by the school to address the problem included: professional development for all staff; promoting a climate in which reporting mocking is acceptable; developing clear policies/procedures for dealing with mocking; involving the whole school in learning about the negative impact of mocking; involving pupils in developing mental health promotion programmes in the school.

Scope: Multi-method study using data gathered through focus groups, surveys, classroom discussions and interviews.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - secondary, education - school organisation, health - mental, Pacific, Samoan, Cook Island, Tongan, Niue, Maori, Pakeha, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews, surveys

H13. Dickson, N., 2000 'Pregnancies among New Zealand teenagers: Trends, current status and international comparisons', New Zealand Medical Journal, 113, 1112, 241-245.

Research focus/aims: To examine trends in birth and pregnancy rates among teenage New Zealand women, including trends in ethnic differences.

Data: Official data on births and abortions by age in New Zealand.

Key findings/outcomes: The teenage birth rate rose from the late 1940s until 1972, dropped until 1986, and then began to rise again (slightly). This rate has not been more marked because of an increase in the number of teenage pregnancies being aborted since 1972. In 1997, the teenage birth rate for Maori women was nearly five times, and for Pacific women over three times that among European/Pakeha teenagers.

Scope: Nation-wide data from Statistics New Zealand and the Abortion Supervisory Group.

Keywords: health - physical, Maori, Pacific, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, national data

H14. Elliot, S., Lee, A., and Jane, C., 1995 'Refugee youth', Mental Health News, 9.

Research focus/aims: To highlight the circumstances of refugee young people coming to New Zealand.

Key findings/outcomes: Age on migration is important. For adolescent refugees, forced migration is very difficult, and this group appears to be vulnerable to mental health problems later in life. One important issue for these young people is isolation, as they are likely to lack English skills, have few friends except others in their ethnic group, rarely have anyone to share their concerns with and may be unwilling to share these with their parents. Parents in their turn may have little understanding of their children's situation. These young people often act as cultural brokers and interpreters for their parents, and this can be an added burden for them. All children arriving on the refugee quota have gaps in schooling, and some girls have no previous formal schooling. At school, teachers appear to see this group as relatively happy and adjusted in contrast to the feelings that the students themselves report about being unhappy, sometimes to the point of suicide. Refugee youth tend to have very high expectations of themselves and this adds to the overall burden of their situation.

Scope: Reflections on professional practice at the Mangere Resettlement Centre and the Refugees as Survivors Centre, Auckland.

Keywords: health - mental, education - acculturation, refugees, reflections on professional practice

H15. Foliaki, S., Kokaua, J., Schaaf D., and Tukuitonga, C., 2006 'Twelve month and life prevalences of mental disorders and treatment contact among Pacific people in Te Rau Hinengaro: The New Zealand Mental Health Survey', Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 40, 924-934.

Research focus/aims: To use data from the New Zealand Mental Health Survey to identify the 12 month and life time prevalences of mental disorders and 12 month treatment contact among Pacific people in the Survey sample.

Participants: New Zealanders aged 16 years and over including Pacific people (n=2236) and people of mixed Maori and Pacific ethnicity (n=138).

Key findings/outcomes: High rates of mental illness were recorded among Pacific people. New Zealand born Pacific people experienced significantly higher prevalence of mental illness than their Island born counterparts. Among those who had experienced a serious mental disorder, only 25 percent had ever visited a health service for treatment of the disorder. The equivalent figure for the total New Zealand population is 58 percent.

Scope: Used the World Health Organisation World Mental Health Survey Initiative version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI 3.0) with a nationally representative sample in a face to face household survey. Response rate: 73.3 percent.

Keywords: health - mental, health - services, Pacific, Maori/Pacific, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

H16. Ford, D. J., Scragg, R., and Weir, J., 1997 'Sale of cigarettes to school children aged 14 and 15 years in New Zealand', New Zealand Medical Journal, 110, 1046, 225-227.

Research focus/aims: To examine the sources from which 14 and 15 year olds obtain cigarettes, the extent of illegal sales to them and the risk factors associated with cigarette purchase.

Participants: Fourth form students in ninety nine schools: 43 single sex; 56 co-educational; 10 private; 89 public, 71 urban; 28 rural. Total students participating: 14,097.

Key findings/outcomes: Over one-third of the respondents reported being smokers. Nearly one-quarter of the smokers had bought cigarettes in the last 12 months; over one-half of smokers bought their own, mainly from dairies; almost all said it was 'easy' or 'very easy' to buy cigarettes, although the proportion of Pacific Islanders who stated this was lower than other ethnic groups (Maori, Asian, European). Only one-quarter of smokers had ever been refused on the grounds of age and these were mainly heavy smokers and young men. The probability of refusal was lower for Pacific Island students and for girls. Concludes that the illegal sale of cigarettes to young people is too easy, and that young people are well aware of this. Advocates heavier penalties for those who make illegal sales.

Scope: A questionnaire was distributed (response rate: 73 percent) and results analysed statistically.

Keywords: health - physical, Maori, Pacific, Asian, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

H17. Ford, D.J., Scragg, R., Weir, J., and Gaiser, J., 1995 'A national survey of cigarette smoking in fourth form school children in New Zealand', New Zealand Medical Journal, 108, 1011, 454-457.

Research focus/aims: To determine the prevalence of cigarette smoking among 14-15 year old school children in New Zealand; to examine associated risk factors.

Participants: Fourth form students in ninety nine schools: 43 single sex; 56 co-educational; 10 private; 89 public, 71 urban; 28 rural. Total students participating: 14,097.

Key findings/outcomes: Highest prevalence rates were reported by girls and by Maori students. Pacific Island students had a lower relative risk of smoking than European students. Major risk factors for smoking were: parental smoking; poor knowledge of the adverse health effects of smoking; and watching televised sports (including those that may be associated with tobacco sponsorship). These factors accounted for over one-third of the total smoking prevalence among participants. Recommends that strategies aimed at preventing smoking should address these risk factors.

Scope: A questionnaire was distributed (response rate: 73 percent) and results analysed statistically.

Keywords: health - physical, Maori, Pacific, Asian, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

H18. Fuamatu, N., Thetadig, R. and Sally, C., 1996 Influences on the eating patterns and food choices of Samoan teenagers in Auckland, Alcohol & Public Health Research Unit, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To develop an understanding of factors that influence food intake by young New Zealanders of different socio-economic status and household composition. To inform policy and programme development in order to improve the nutritional behaviour and wellbeing of New Zealanders.

Participants: Twenty Samoan families with teenagers aged 13-16 years living in Auckland. Interviews were conducted with a teenager (10 boys and 10 girls) and an adult (responsible for food preparation) in each family.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) The teenagers displayed definite knowledge about 'good' and 'not good' foods and were encouraged to eat 'good' food by their caregivers. (2) Religion influenced perceptions of what foods should and should not be consumed in terms of food prohibitions as well as 'good' food. (3) Friends, family, school and doctors influenced perceptions about food choices. (4) Teenagers bought food that was cheap and easily accessible, and this tended to be packaged food high in salt and sugar. They said they would like to eat more fruit and cereal and a greater variety of meat and vegetables in the home. (5) Adults bought food for the family based on economic considerations and on mothers' familiarity with certain foods. (6) Cultural and religious events encouraged the provision of Samoan food. (7) Girls were more likely than boys to be involved in food preparation. (8) Girls were more likely than boys to be concerned about not putting on weight. (9) Mothers encouraged children to get enough to eat at home and were concerned about the poor quality of food sold at school (9) Most teenagers bought their lunch at least twice a week.

Scope: Networking was used to gather a sample that included families with a range of socio-economic circumstances, religious denominations, composition and geographic locations within Auckland. Interviews with the teenagers were conducted in English; 17 of the interviews with the adults were in Samoan, 3 in English. See also:

• Fuamatu, N., 1997 'The food choices of Samoan teenagers in Auckland: Big Mac combo or pisupo and taro?', Pacific Health Dialog 4(2): 6-10.

Keywords: health - physical, Maori, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews

H19. Hauraki, J., 2005 A model minority?: Chinese youth and mental health services in New Zealand, PhD Clinical Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To investigate the use of mental health services by Chinese youth (both foreign born and New Zealand born) in New Zealand. To identify barriers to service use, and solutions to address these barriers.

Participants: Members of the Chinese community, mental health professionals, university students (of Chinese and other ethnicities).

Key findings/outcomes: Many obstacles to help-seeking behaviour were identified including: physical barriers such as transport and financial constraints; personal barriers such as stigma associated with mental illness and reluctance to accept difficulties; service barriers such as lack of knowledge of what services were available; and family barriers such as obstruction to help-seeking from family members. Chinese youth faced particular family and service barriers compared with European youth, especially with respect to the stereotypes of Chinese youth held by mental health professionals. Suggests that these barriers could be reduced through: more education about mental health problems and services in the Chinese community; education for Chinese parents about issues for adolescents; an increased number of Chinese mental health professionals; better cross cultural training for non-Chinese professionals.

Scope: Abstract only accessed. Method not specified.

Keywords: health - mental, health - services, family - intergenerational relationships, Asian, Chinese, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born

H20. Kypri, K., Langley, J., and Stephenson, S., 2005 'Episode-centred analysis of drinking to intoxication in university students', Alcohol and Alcoholism: International Journal of the Medical Council on Alcoholism, 40, 5, 447-452.

Research focus/aims: To measure (through the use of an internet-based retrospective diary) intoxication among New Zealand university students.

Participants: A probability sample of 1,564 students aged 16-29 years enrolled at the University of Otago.

Key findings/outcomes: In relation to ethnicity, the study found that European and Maori students were more likely to drink to intoxication than students of Pacific, Asian or other ethnicities. Incidence of intoxication tended to reduce with increasing age and to be more likely among those living in residential halls than those in other living arrangements. Alcohol consumption (and the incidence of alcohol related harm) is noted as being substantially higher among university students than among their non-student peers.

Scope: The study employed random sampling, had a high response rate (82 percent) and a low non-response error.

Keywords: health - physical, education - tertiary, Maori, Pacific, Asian, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

H21. Laugesen, M. and Scragg, R., 1999 'Trends in cigarette smoking in fourth form students in New Zealand, 1992-1997', New Zealand Medical Journal, 112, 1094, 308-311.

Research focus/aims: To identify trends in the prevalence of cigarette smoking among 14-15 year old school children in New Zealand.

Participants: A follow-up survey was distributed to 85 of the original 99 schools that participated in the 1992 research reported by Ford et al. (1995 [H17], 1997 [H16]). Total students participating: 11,824 from the 1992 survey, and 11,350 in 1997.

Key findings/outcomes: A substantial increase in smoking among this age group was recorded. The greatest absolute increase in smoking occurred among Pacific Island girls, from 10.9 percent in 1992 to 23.9 percent in 1997. Maori students also had large absolute increases. Asian students, who had the lowest prevalence of daily smoking, nevertheless had the highest percentage increase over the time period. The increase in daily smoking was greater in girls than in boys, and the largest increase in new daily smokers was among European girls (daily smoking increased by 45 percent).

Scope: A questionnaire was distributed (response rate: 72 percent) and results analysed statistically.

Keywords: health - physical, education - secondary, Maori, Pacific, Asian, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

H22. MacGibbon, L., 2004, 'We don't want to seem demanding': Information needs of refugee and new migrants to Christchurch, Christchurch City Council, Christchurch.

Research focus/aims: To determine what kind of system would best meet the information needs of new settlers in Christchurch (e.g. website, book directory, modified database, one-page card setting out key information).

Participants: Key community stakeholders, groups (n=40) of people who came to Christchurch as migrants or refugees including young people from Afghanistan, Egypt, Ethiopia, Nepal, Russia, Somalia.

Key findings/outcomes: There are no findings that relate specifically to young people. General findings include: (1) Migrants need information about basic services on first arrival. (2) The first strategy employed by most new settlers was to find someone who could provide the needed information. (3) Sometimes new settlers do not know that they do not have the information they need, particularly with regard to regulations and bylaws. (4) Many are not able to access needed information.

Recommendations: (1) A pamphlet with information specific to Christchurch on everyday needs and useful contacts. (2) A directory at the airport listing points of contact for ethnic communities. (3) A dedicated web page. (4) Continued support for existing information services. (5) A one stop shop.

Scope: Interviews, documentary analysis.

Keywords: services, migrants, refugees, overseas born, interviews

H23. Mason, L., 1997 The impact of immigration on the anxiety, self-esteem and attitudes towards school and friends of South African immigrant children. A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University.

Research focus/aims: To explore any psychological and emotional difficulties encountered by South African immigrant children in New Zealand.

Participants: South African immigrant children (n=36) and their parents; a control group of New Zealand children (n=36). All children attended Auckland (North Shore) intermediate schools.

Key findings/outcomes: South African immigrant children had (1) significantly higher state anxiety than New Zealand children; (2) greater self-esteem if they knew another child at the first school attended in New Zealand than if they did not; (3) lower state anxiety and higher self-esteem if they were happy rather than unhappy to be living in New Zealand; (4) significantly more negative attitudes and perceptions of school in New Zealand than school in South Africa; (5) more negative attitudes and perceptions of their friends in New Zealand than New Zealand children had.

Scope: Qualitative and quantitative data gathering, including (different) questionnaires administered to the South African children and their parents; anxiety, self-esteem scales and semantic differentials administered to all the children.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - secondary, identity, peer relationships, health - mental, South African, migrants, overseas born, interviews, survey

H24. Ngai, M. and Chu, K., 2001 'Issues and service needs of Chinese communities', Social Work Review, 13, 1, 2-6.

Research focus/aims: To present an overview of the issues faced by Chinese immigrants to New Zealand and to consider the service needs of the Chinese community in general and immigrants in particular.

Key findings/outcomes: In relation to youth, details areas of concern for social service providers including intergenerational tensions and cultural differences between Chinese and Kiwi young people in the areas of study, sport, family ties, sexual experience and so forth. Concludes that family and child/adolescent adjustments could be strengthened through: (1) orientation and buddy systems for new immigrant students; (2) culturally relevant safety programmes for adolescents; (3) developmental groups and psycho-educational workshops for parents and children (4) bilingual school and family social workers.

Scope: Draws on official statistics, 'practice wisdom' and survey results from a health care survey of 1,338 Asian people in North and West Auckland.

Keywords: health - services, education - services, Asian, Chinese, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey, reflections on professional practice

H25. Rasanathan, K., Ameratunga, S., Chen, J., Robinson, E., Young, M., Wong, G., Garrett, N., and Watson, P., 2006 A health profile of young Asian New Zealanders who attend secondary school: Findings from Youth2000, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To present findings on the self-reported health of participants who identified with an 'Asian' ethnic category from the Youth2000 National Secondary School Youth Health Survey.

Participants: A sub-sample of 922 students (9.5 percent) of the total sample identified with an 'Asian' ethnic category. This included: 487 who identified as Chinese, and 271 who identified as Indian, with 48 identifying as both Chinese and Indian. Insufficient numbers of students identified with other 'Asian' categories to enable individual analysis for these other groups.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Overall, most young Asians are healthy, report positive family environments, feel comfortable in Pakeha settings and do not engage in risky behaviour. (2) Over half of young Chinese and about 40 percent of young Indian New Zealanders report that the major language at home is not English. (3) Nearly one-third of young Chinese and about one-quarter of young Indians reported not feeling safe at school. (4) Young 'Asians' were less likely to report bullying than their New Zealand European peers, but when they do, they are more likely to report traumatic bullying, although they are unlikely to report this to an adult. (5) Young Chinese are less likely than European peers to access health care services, with 14 percent not accessing health services at all. Among young Indian New Zealanders, this figure was 7 percent. (6) Mental health was a significant issue. Young Indian New Zealanders reported higher prevalence of depression than their European peers. (7) Young 'Asian' women were likely to report low levels of physical activity. (8) Young 'Asian' New Zealanders who are recent migrants are less likely than those who were New Zealand born to engage in risky behaviour such as binge drinking, unsafe sex, smoking and marijuana use.

Recommendations: Schools and communities: (1) Provide safe environments for all, including safe means for students to report bullying. (2) Confront bullying and uphold a no-tolerance policy towards it. (3) Work with families to improve communication with students about risk behaviours and problems at school. (4) Identify young Indian female students as vulnerable to poor mental health. (5) Encourage and enable young 'Asian' students to undertake physical activity, including in ways that are culturally appropriate. (6) Support, value and celebrate cultural practices/traditions of 'Asian' students. Service providers: (1) Differentiate clearly among specific 'Asian' ethnic groups. (2) Provide access to health care for young Chinese New Zealanders and young recent migrants, and use new technologies such as cell phones and the internet to reduce barriers to access. (3) Consider the protective effects of traditional family cultures, structures and practices for these young people and identify ways to preserve these healthy effects. (4) Promote inter-sectoral collaboration for service providers to young 'Asian' New Zealanders. (5) Develop culturally specific tools and a knowledgeable workforce to provide health services to these young people. For Ministry of Health, funding agencies, researchers and policy makers: (1) Undertake and fund further research into the health of these young people. (2) Investigate factors that contribute to comparatively low levels of risky behaviours among them. (3) Identify and consider the diversity of young 'Asian' New Zealanders when developing national youth strategies.

Scope: Youth2000 was a nationally representative youth health survey of 9,699 secondary school students. The sample was random, and the survey was administered through students using multi-media technology on laptop computers. Note that the survey excluded students with limited English language skills and those fee paying students who were not New Zealand residents. Note that there is also (forthcoming) a report on the health and wellbeing of young Pacific people from the Youth2000 survey. At the time of writing, this was not yet available. See www.youth2000.ac.nz.

Keywords: health - mental, health - physical, health - acculturation, family, Asian, Chinese, Indian, migrant, New Zealand born, overseas born, survey

H26. Samu, K. S., 2003 Social correlates of suicide among Samoan youth, MA Sociology, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To identify stress factors recorded in Samoan youth suicide cases and to consider these in relation to the situations of some New Zealand born Samoans. To examine whether there are any stress factors specifically relevant to this group but not identified as such in the research literature.

Participants: New Zealand born Samoans (n=76), both male and female, aged 16-25 years, living in Auckland.

Key findings/outcomes: A review of the literature identified 52 stress factors in records of Samoan youth suicide. All stressors were found to be applicable to participants. A variety of reasons for the outcomes found in the data are explored, most of which centre on issues of family and educational stressors. In addition to the 52 stressors noted in the literature, identity issues were raised by participants as significant.

Scope: Questionnaire.

Keywords: health - mental, Pacific, Samoan, migrant, New Zealand born, survey

H27. Simpson, A.I.F., Brinded, P.M., Fairley, N., Laidlaw, T.M., Malcolm, F., 2003 'Does ethnicity affect need for mental health service among New Zealand prisoners?' Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 37, 6, 728-734.

Research focus/aims: Analyses the data from the National Study on Psychiatric Morbidity in New Zealand Prisons for differential rates of major mental disorders by ethnicity.

Participants: All female prisoners, all male prisoners on remand, and a random sample (18 percent) of sentenced male prisoners.

Key findings/outcomes: Approximately 8 percent of New Zealand prisoners are of Pacific ethnicity, and approximately 50 percent are Maori. Younger prisoners are more likely to be of Maori or Pacific ethnicity. Prevalence of mental disorders was found to be largely similar across ethnic groups. Treatment for mental illness, however, was less common among Maori and Pacific prisoners than among other ethnic groups, both in prison and in the community. Recommends that services relating to mental health must improve in terms of responsiveness to these groups both before and after entry to prison.

Scope: Participants were interviewed using the diagnostic interview for mental illness (CIDI-A), screening diagnostic interview for personality disorders (PDQ) and suicide screening questions.

Keywords: health - mental, health - services, Pacific, Maori, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, survey

H28. Sobrun-Maharaj, A., 2002 The social acceptance of visible ethnic minority adolescents of Asian origin in Auckland secondary schools. A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University, Albany.

Research focus/aims: To explore the social acceptance of visible ethnic minorities of Asian origin in three secondary schools in Aotearoa/New Zealand. To present the perspective of visible ethnic minorities on social acceptance within a diverse ethnic environment. This involves an investigation of interethnic attitudes and perceptions of social acceptance among adolescents from a diverse range of ethnic groups and an examination of bullying and ethnic intimidation as key indicators of social non-acceptance.

Participants: Pupils from years 9, 11 and 13 (n=208) from the following ethnic groups: European (52), Maori (31), Pacific Island (33), West Asian (Indian, 52) and East Asian (Chinese, 40). Parents (West Asian, n=12, East Asian, n=12) and teachers (n=85, 62 European and 23 from visible ethnic minorities) were also interviewed as participants.

Key findings/outcomes: The study identified: (1) Average levels of interethnic social acceptance. (2) Significant social distance between ethnic groups. (3) Misconceptions on the part of some ethnic groups regarding acceptance and understandings of ethnic difference. (4) Significant ethnic intimidation experienced by members of visible ethnic minorities resulting in poorer physical and mental wellbeing.

Scope: Surveys, interviews, participant observation in schools, including classroom observation in 33 classes. The study analysed participants' perceptions of others and their perceptions of perspectives held by others, attitudes towards others of different ethnicity, the extent of interethnic interaction, perceptions of intimidatory practices, orientations toward the acculturation of immigrants, the degree of peer victimisation and bullying experienced, and the effects of these on pupils' mental and physical wellbeing and self esteem.

Keywords: health - mental, health - acculturation, peer relationships, Asian, Chinese, Indian, Pacific, Maori, migrant, New Zealand born, overseas born, interviews, survey, participant observation

H29. Tiatia, J., 2003 Reasons to live: NZ born Samoan young people's responses to suicidal behaviours, PhD Community Health, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To investigate the perceptions of Aotearoa/New Zealand Samoan young people (aged 16-25 years) regarding factors that they perceive to impact upon their suicide attempts. To examine the prospective reasons to live of these young people.

Participants: All Samoan young people aged 16-25 who were treated at the Emergency Department of a participating hospital for injuries classified internationally as relating to attempted suicide (n=27). Interviews were held with 20 of these young people.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Aiga (family) plays an important role in the overall health and wellbeing of participants, and is identified by them as the most effective starting point for strategies for suicide prevention. At the same time, the complexity of obligation, reluctance to dishonour the fa'aSamoa (Samoan way) and family name, and feelings of accountability should these demands not be met, diminished participants' coping abilities. Cultural expectations of emotional reserve impacted upon participants' suicidal behaviours. Interpersonal conflicts with aiga or a partner triggered anger that led to suicidal behaviours. Concludes that suicidal behaviours cannot be regarded solely as an issue of mental illness. (2) Participants talk about reasons to live suggest a number of factors that may be important in suicide prevention strategies including: spirituality, alternative modes of expression for managing day to day stressors, youth health services with appropriate staff and processes, talking through issues, positive friendships, comprehensive outpatient and follow-up care for those who have attempted suicide. Concludes that a broader conception of suicide behaviours is needed, moving beyond traditional western epidemiological and mental illness approaches.

Scope: Study of medical records of young Samoan New Zealanders who attempted suicide during the period of the study; interviews with twenty of these young people. See also:

• Tiatia, J. and Coggan, C., 2001 'Young Pacifican suicide attempts: a review of emergency department medical records, Auckland, New Zealand', Pacific Health Dialog, 8, 1, 124-128.

Keywords: health - mental, health - services, family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, Samoan, migrant, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews

H30. Utter, J., Scragg, R., Schaaf, D., and Fitzgerald, E., 2006 'Nutrition and physical activity behaviours among Maori, Pacific and New Zealand European children: Identifying opportunities for population-based interventions', Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 30, 1, 50.

Research focus/aims: To use analysis of the 2002 National Children's Nutrition Survey to examine how behaviour relating to nutrition and physical activity vary by ethnic group and to identify points of intervention to improve these behaviours where appropriate.

Key findings/outcomes: Once socio-demographic characteristics were controlled for, few ethnic differences were significant for fruit/vegetable consumption, or for physical activity. Where ethnic differences were significant, Maori and Pacific children were more likely than children in the Other group (comprising New Zealand European and other ethnicities): to be active; to skip meals; to purchase some or most of the food they consumed at school; to be high consumers of fatty and sugary foods. Possible interventions: Maori and Pacific children would benefit from school based programmes that improve access to healthy foods and that subsidise the price of these foods. Programmes that seek to improve the consumption of fruit and vegetables and that increase physical activity would benefit all children.

Scope: Secondary data analysis of the 2002 National Children's Nutrition Survey.

Keywords: health - physical, Maori, Pacific, Asian, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

H31. Vong, C., 2002b 'Obstacles preventing Chinese immigrant students from seeking help from counselling, and tips for removing these obstacles', New Zealand Journal of Counselling, 23, 1, 74-79.

Research focus/aims: Explores why Chinese students have a low rate of self-referral to counsellors.

Key findings/outcomes: Obstacles to Chinese students seeking help include: the prospect of bringing shame on the family; sensitivity to perceived stigma associated with mental ill-health; fears that private matters will be made known by the counsellor to other students or family members; young Chinese people are likely to go first to those whom they know rather than to a stranger for help; Chinese people value self restraint regarding feelings and subtle ways of approaching problems; unfamiliarity with, and low expectations of counselling; a lack of Chinese-speaking counsellors.

Recommendations: School counsellors should: (1) Emphasise the importance of confidentiality in the counselling relationship. (2) Offer preventive and educational programmes that can be done as group work, for example, in stress management; developing peer support systems with senior Chinese students to serve as a bridge into the counselling service. (3) Offer help with vocational and academic concerns to enable the establishment of trust with students on these less risky topics. (4) Tailor counselling style and environment to suit Chinese students.

Scope: Draws on local and international research.

Keywords: health - mental, health - services, Asian, Chinese, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, review

H32. Wali, R., 2001 'Working Therapeutically with Indian Families within a New Zealand Context', The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 22, 1, 10-16.

Research focus/aims: To highlight important aspects of Indian culture that are relevant to family therapists working with Indian families in New Zealand

Key findings/outcomes: With respect to work with young Indian people migrating to New Zealand with their families, culture clash is a significant issue. Young people find themselves caught between two worlds and the differing expectations and pressures of each, particularly in terms of dating and other peer activities. Parents often respond to the changed environment for their children by becoming over-protective and by attempting to exert more control and increased emphasis on traditional forms of behaviour. This can have serious consequences for parent-child relationships. Concludes that the therapist must enable the young person's voice to be heard without undermining parental authority or family structure.

Scope: Reflections of professional practice as a clinical psychologist.

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, family - acculturation, health, social services, Indian, migrants, overseas born, reflections on professional practice

H33. Walker, L., Merry, S., Watson, P.D., Robinson, E., Crengle, S., and Schaaf, D., 2005 'The Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale in New Zealand adolescents', Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 39, 3, 136-140.

Research focus/aims: To use data from the Youth2000 Health and Wellbeing Survey to examine aspects of the reliability and validity of the Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (RADS) across different ethnic groups in New Zealand.

Participants: A random sample of New Zealand secondary school students (n=9699).

Key findings/outcomes: On the basis of all tests conducted, the RADS was found to be acceptable in terms of both reliability and validity for adolescents across the major ethnic groups in New Zealand.

Scope: Large scale random sample of New Zealand adolescents.

Keywords: health - mental, migrants, refugees, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

H34. Wong, S., 2002 'Assigned characteristics for Chinese children and youth: Myth or reality?' New Zealand Journal of Counselling, 23, 1, 33-38.

Research focus/aims: Discusses commonly held views about Chinese adolescents, particularly with respect to academic performance and parental expectations.

Key findings/outcomes: Argues that the uncritical acceptance of stereotypes by teachers and counsellors can have damaging consequences for Chinese students including making integration more difficult than it otherwise might be. Argues in favour of teachers and counsellors assessing students as individuals, according to individual need. An understanding of external demands that may produce tensions for a student between home life and school life is important, as is being open to recognising differences and commonalities between Chinese and New Zealand students and helping students to address tensions through balancing their own choices with those of their families.

Scope: Based on personal reflections from experience as a Chinese adolescent in New Zealand, and some international research.

Keywords: health - mental, education - acculturation, Chinese, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, review, personal reflections on experience

Identity and participation

Research listed in this section relates to the last two of the Settlement Strategy goals: that migrants, refugees and their families are able to "feel safe expressing their ethnic identity and be accepted by and become part of the wider host community" and "participate in civic, community and social activities". Most of the research listed here refers to the former rather than the latter goal. Much of this work comes from studies on acculturation among young migrants and refugees, but a growing body of research addresses questions of identity that have emerged as key interests among migrant researchers themselves, particularly regarding identity formation among individuals who were born in New Zealand and have grown up within a migrant community.

I1. Anae, M., 1998 Fofoa-i-vao-'ese: The identity journeys of New Zealand born Samoans, PhD Anthropology, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To explore the construction of ethnic identity among a group of New Zealand born Samoans. Specifically, to explore the way fa'aSamoa, church and life in New Zealand influences life choices, the construction of the self and secured identities.

Participants: The Samoan community associated with Newton Pacific Islanders Church in Auckland.

Key findings/outcomes: 'Identity journeys' are explored, that is, the construction of ethnic identity through experimenting with subject positions over time, as a result of challenges to perceived self identities. Three broad findings are outlined: (1) Links between New Zealand born Samoans and other Samoans established through the church, aiga, fa'aSamoa and homeland are differentially complex by virtue of these individuals being born in New Zealand and not Samoa. (2) New Zealand born Samoans are continuously involved in the renegotiation and construction of social roles and identities - but Samoan ethnicity is also a persistent identity system. (3) Ethnicity consists of the shared experiences of an ethnic group involving, in this case, the dynamic interaction between church, culture and identity - e.g. leaving church, for this group, becomes synonymous with a temporary opting out of Samoan identity. 'Time outs' become crucial coping mechanisms that allow individuals to respond to challenges in their own terms, acting out or accommodating difference rather than succumbing to mental 'unwellness' as a result of their experiences not matching up with their emotional and cognitive knowledge. New Zealand born experiences support the Samoan conception of self as in relationship with other people, both Samoans and New Zealanders, and those who successfully reach a secured identity are able to understand, reconcile and reclaim their own identities in being a Samoan not born in Samoa.

Scope: Ethnography including interviews, discussion groups, participant observation over a period of two and a half years. See also:

• Anae, M., Coxon, E., Mara, D., Wendt-Samu, T., and Finau, C., 2001 Pasifika education research guidelines: Final Report, Ministry of Education, Wellington [R2].

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, New Zealand born, ethnography, research methods

I2. Armstrong, L., Collie, P., et al, 2005 Participation action research with Assyrian youth, Department of Geography, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: Reports on a Participatory Action Research project examining issues and challenges faced by Assyrian youth in Wellington, New Zealand. Issues explored included identity, relationships in the family and at school, the availability and accessibility of services.

Participants: Assyrian adolescents aged 11-18, all were male (n=13 at the first workshop, n=24 at the second). One interview was held with an Assyrian school liaison officer.

Key findings/outcomes: Barriers to education included: (1) economic constraints, (2) language barriers - although the boys spoke fluent English they struggled with written English, (3) lack of parental involvement in schooling, (4) teachers and schools lack resources and skills to provide for the needs of these students, (5) discrimination and racism in school, (6) confusion over different methods of discipline between Iraq and New Zealand, (7) peer group attitudes that discourage hard work at school, (8) lack of confidence and motivation to do well - linked to different learning styles in Iraq and New Zealand, (9) lack of career aspirations, (10) lack of role models. Issues associated with child-adult transitions included: (1) identity conflict between belonging to two cultures, and lacking a sense of belonging in either, (2) conflict in the family from adopting the values of Kiwi peers. Family issues included: (1) lack of trust and understanding, (2) pressure of parental expectations. Service/support issues included: (1) the most useful services were church youth groups, (2) the young men would like work experience and apprenticeship help, (3) relatives were the most useful source of information about living in New Zealand.

Scope: Two workshops were held in which a variety of research exercises were undertaken involving group discussions, role plays and art work.

Keywords: identity, social services, education - learning styles, secondary, Iraqi, Assyrian, refugees, overseas born, interviews

I3. Bartley, A., 2003 "New" New Zealanders, or harbingers of a new transnationalism?: 1.5 generation Asian migrant adolescents in New Zealand. A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University, Albany.

Research focus/aims: To examine the experiences of acculturation, settlement and ethnic identity formation among the 1.5 generation - young people who fall between first generation migrants (born outside the country and choosing to migrate) and second generation (New Zealand born).

Participants: Young people aged 15-19 years (n=120) who came to New Zealand as children from Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea.

Key findings/outcomes: This group is located at the convergence of a range of social pressures: childhood/adulthood, parents/local communities; origin/host societies. They tend to be the children of highly skilled parents who have extensive transnational connections. The thesis problematises conventional explanations of migrant adjustment and settlement, arguing that participants do not conform to these models but rather that they possess cultural, social and economic resources that are enabling them to reproduce their parents' transnational identities. This is made possible through strategies of selective acculturation and through aspirations to pursue educational and occupational opportunities overseas.

Scope: Survey and interviews of participants. This doctoral work is also discussed in Bartley, A., 2004 'Contemporary Asian migration to New Zealand: challenging the "settler" paradigm', in Spoonley, P., MacPherson, C., & Pearson, D,. (eds) Tangata, Tangata: The Changing Ethnic Contours of New Zealand, Palmerston North, Dunmore Press, 157-174.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Asian, Taiwanese, Hong Kong, South Korean, migrants, overseas born, interviews, survey

I4. Bihi, A., 1999 Cultural identity: Adaptation and wellbeing of Somali refugees in New Zealand, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To investigate the socio-economic and cultural adaptation of Somali refugees in New Zealand and in particular to assess the relative importance of cultural identity to refugee adaptation and wellbeing. (Abstract only accessed.)

Participants: Not stated.

Key findings/outcomes: Retention of cultural identity is vital for successful adaptation, enabling refugees to cope with adversity and to function as normal human beings. Cultural needs cannot be separated from socio-economic needs, therefore resettlement should encompass: (1) Restoration: recovery of livelihoods and restoration of a family's sense of control. (2) Re-adaptation: learning how to live in new material conditions and a changed cultural environment. (3) Retention: being able to hold on to the core of Somali identity, specifically language, religion and kin solidarity.

Scope: Semi-structured interviews, participant observation, reflections on personal experience, documentary data.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Somali, refugees, interviews, participant observation

I5. Brady, J., 2003 Walking between two cultures: The process of identity formation in resettled refugee adolescents and the place for psychotherapy, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: A modified literature review on identity formation in refugee adolescents in order to identify what factors impact on identity development and whether there is a place for psychotherapy within this process.

Key findings/outcomes: Psychotherapy was identified as useful for helping refugee adolescents in the process of identity formation. Psychotherapy provides a space in which these young people are able to establish a stable emotional base that facilitates their personal identity formation and enables them to find their place within their two cultures.

Scope: Masters thesis literature review.

Keywords: health - mental, identity - acculturation, refugee, literature review

I6. Cheung, V.Y.M., 2001 The effect of supportive intervention on the adjustment of immigrant Chinese adolescents: a pilot study, MA Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To test the hypothesis that immigrant Chinese adolescents who participated in a peer support group would significantly improve their adaptation skills. (Abstract only accessed.)

Participants: Two groups of Chinese adolescent immigrants: one intervention group and one control group (numbers not stated).

Key findings/outcomes: The hypothesis was not supported. Analysis of variance revealed no group effects and no group by time interaction effects, except for appraisal support.

Scope: The intervention group attended a weekly social support group (Chinese Youth Club) for three months, while the control group received no treatment during that period. Measures of self esteem, loneliness, social support and adaptation to New Zealand culture were administered to both groups before and after the Chinese Youth Club experience. Results analysed statistically.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, peer relationships, Asian, Chinese, migrant, overseas born, survey, tests

I7. Chu, S.W.S., 2005 A life-skills training programme for Chinese migrant students in New Zealand: development, implementation and evaluation, EdD Counselling, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To develop, implement and evaluate a Life Skills Training Programme for Chinese migrant students, based on resiliency theory. To test the hypothesis that: as a result of taking part in the programme, participants would increase their resiliency in terms of maturity in personal development and adaptation in terms of adjustment to living in New Zealand. (Abstract only accessed.)

Participants: Three groups of Chinese migrant university students and three groups of Chinese migrant secondary school students (number not stated).

Key findings/outcomes: Content and sequence of the programme were: Orientation, Cultural Identity Development, Self-Esteem Building and Positive Thinking, Interpersonal Relationships, Communication Skills, Assertiveness Training, Conflict Resolution, Stress Management, Study Skills, Winding up. Results affirmed the programme design as enhancing resiliency among participants. Participants were found to have positive learning outcomes after participating in the programme.

Scope: Case study consisted of ten 1.5 hour sessions in the life skills training programme with observations and feedback (both verbal and through questionnaires) from participants and co-leaders. The programme was monitored and improved in each successive session according to the feedback. A refined version of the programme was produced in the end.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, health - mental, Asian, Chinese, migrant, overseas born, case study, evaluation

I8. Dhanapala, C., 2001 Sinhalese young women in New Zealand: The challenges of adolescent immigrant acculturation, MSoSc, University of Waikato, Hamilton.

Research focus/aims: To explore the acculturation experiences of Sinhalese adolescent immigrant women in New Zealand particularly with respect to their experiences of relocation, challenges encountered and coping strategies adopted.

Participants: Sinhalese migrant women aged 13-18 years (n=15); key informants knowledgeable in this area (n=7).

Key findings/outcomes: These young women had no choice about relocating to New Zealand; the adaptive strategies they adopted were based around dual identification to cope with acculturation. Adolescent migration was perceived by them to be made difficult by the interaction of variables such as cultural distance and parent-child relationships. They also felt that they lacked adequate information about New Zealand. Recommends that successful adaptation can be facilitated by strengthening familial and social support networks and implementing a buddy system within the minority community.

Scope: Personal background questionnaires were completed by the young women and in-depth group interviews were carried out. Interviews were held with the key informants.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Asian - Sinhalese, migrants, overseas born, interviews

I9. Dibley, R. and Dunstan, S., 2002 'Refugee Voices': Refugee Resettlement Research Project. Interim Report: A Journey Towards Resettlement, New Zealand Immigration Service, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To explore the resettlement experiences of refugees in New Zealand. This report looks at the experiences of those who had their refugee status confirmed between January and July 2001. The final report will also include those who have been in New Zealand between four and six years.

Participants: 50 Quota refugee family groups (n=96), 38 Convention refugee families (n=42), 47 Family reunification groups (n=71). From this total, 26 teenagers aged 13-16 years were interviewed.

Key findings/outcomes: With respect to teenagers: (1) Most recognised differences in being a teenager in New Zealand compared with their home countries; the main difference mentioned was the freedom of New Zealand teenagers, which was regarded in both positive and negative light. (2) Nearly all said that they liked school in New Zealand. (3) Language was regarded as the main difficulty. (4) Most thought that it was easier for them to settle than for their parents, citing age, ease in learning English and ease of making friends as key differences with their parents.

Scope: Participants were interviewed. A purposive sampling frame was developed to ensure a balanced sample with respect to gender, nationality, age and family size. This was not necessarily a representative sample. The report, the second of three, presents an overview of initial findings in the Refugee Resettlement Project. The first report was:

• Gray, A. and Elliott, S., 2001 Refugee Resettlement Research Project, 'Refugee Voices': Literature Review, New Zealand Immigration Service, Wellington.

Keywords: education - language, identity - acculturation, family - intergenerational relationships, refugees, interviews

I10. Eyou, M.L., Adair, V., and Dixon, R., 2000 'Cultural identity and psychological adjustment of adolescent Chinese immigrants in New Zealand', Journal of Adolescence, 23, 5, 531-543.

Research focus/aims: To investigate the relationship between cultural identity and psychological adjustment among adolescent Chinese immigrants in New Zealand with a view to contributing to an understanding of how the psychological wellbeing of these young people can be fostered. Four modes of acculturation are investigated: integration, assimilation, separatism and marginalisation.

Participants: First generation immigrant Chinese adolescents at three large urban co-educational secondary schools serving working and middle class socio-economic neighbourhoods. The sample included 211 males and 216 females with an age range of between 12 and 20 years. Length of residency in New Zealand ranged from one month to 15 years.

Key findings/outcomes: The cultural identity of participants was found to be related to their psychological adjustment although the nature of this relationship varied for different indicators of adjustment. Integrated adolescents (those expressing a strong identification both with their own ethnic group and mainstream society) were found to have significantly higher self esteem than their peers who were separated (strong identification with their own ethnic group but weak ties with the mainstream) or marginalised (weak identification with both their own group and the mainstream). Findings suggest that the better self esteem of integrated young people may arise from their ability to live as part of both groups without being rejected by either.

Scope: Researchers undertook a range of statistical analyses of data gathered through a self-report questionnaire that was made available in both Chinese and English to the 427 participants. A sub-sample of 24 participants took part in individual telephone interviews with the researcher. This sub-sample included individuals in each of the four categories of cultural identity. See Eyou, M. L., 1997 Cultural identity and psychological adjustment of adolescent Chinese immigrants in New Zealand, MA Education, University of Auckland.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Chinese, migrants, overseas born, interviews, survey

I11. Fairbairn-Dunlop, P. and Makisi, G., (eds) 2003 Making Our Place: Growing up PI in New Zealand, Palmerston North: Dunmore Press.

This book aims to record Pacific Islands migrants' experience by charting the identity journeys and the search for cultural identity from the perspective of New Zealand-raised Pacific peoples. Stories relay personal histories but include many common themes including: cultural self doubt among New Zealand born Pacific peoples, coping with bicultural upbringing, conflicting values, the experience of being a minority within a non-Pacific environment. A range of individuals contributed including nine Samoans, two Tongans, three Cook Islanders, and one person each from Tokelau, Niue and the Solomon Islands. One contributor described himself as SaTong. Contributors came from around New Zealand and from a range of occupations. The collection also aims to capture changes through the life cycle.

Three discernable views emerge: (1) Those who define themselves as Pacific people and 'the product of all PI migrants'. This shared Pacific identity can be traced back to the 1950s and 1960s when Pacific numbers in New Zealand were small. (2) Those who argue strongly for a New Zealand born label. (3) A (generally) younger group who do not evaluate themselves against a homeland but simply are Samoan, Tongan, Niuean, Cook Islander or Tokelauan.

Keywords: identity, family, Pacific, migrants, New Zealand born, personal reflections

I12. Fanene-Taiti, H., 2005 Identity construction of New Zealand born Samoans in Otago: A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Consumer and Applied Science at the University of Otago, Dunedin.

Research focus/aims: To explore identity construction among New Zealand born adolescent male Samoans in the Otago region. Particular attention is paid to the conflicting issues facing these young men in the fields of education, justice, health, welfare, church, family and environment. To explore the implications of findings for social work practice in helping New Zealand born Samoan adolescents to develop 'successful' identities.

Participants: Three young New Zealand born Samoan men.

Key findings/outcomes: Abstract only accessed. Findings not specified.

Scope: In-depth analysis of personal narratives and experiences of participants.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, health - services, Pacific, Samoan, New Zealand born, case studies

I13. Harrington, C.R., 1998 The acculturation of immigrant Chinese children in New Zealand, MA, University of Waikato, Hamilton.

Research focus/aims: To examine the acculturation of immigrant Chinese children in order to identify: (1) what issues these children face in dealing with conflicting values of their families and New Zealand society; (2) what strategies they employ to deal with this conflict; (3) what factors influence the adoption of these strategies; (4) the implications of these strategies.

Participants: immigrant children from Taiwan and mainland China (n=56) living in Hamilton, New Zealand.

Key findings/outcomes: Most children in both groups are well integrated (in terms of Berry's model of acculturation) but more Taiwanese children are separated than their mainland counterparts. Degree of integration/separation is influenced most significantly by age on arrival in New Zealand and host society attitudes. Other factors include: length of time in New Zealand, socio-economic status, parental attitudes and family relations, English language ability, immigrant community support, personality, and cultural attitudes.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, family - intergenerational relationships, Asian, Taiwanese, mainland Chinese, migrants, overseas born, survey

I14. Ho, E.S., 1995a 'Chinese or New Zealander? Differential paths of adaptation of Hong Kong Chinese adolescent immigrants in New Zealand', New Zealand Population Review, 21, 1 & 2, 27-49.

Research focus/aims: Explores the changing cultural identities of Chinese adolescent migrants during and after their move from Hong Kong to New Zealand.

Participants: Two groups of Chinese adolescents: one group (n=60) were planning to emigrate to New Zealand from Hong Kong; the second group (n=223) were immigrants from Hong Kong and had arrived in New Zealand between 1987 and 1992.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Integration is the preferred option for adaptation over assimilation because there are various barriers to the complete assimilation of Chinese into a western society. (2) About half of the participants reported that they were in a separation state four years after migration (i.e. maintaining their Chinese identity and culturally ignoring the host society). Concludes that these young people may not have been adequately prepared for the move to New Zealand.

Recommendations: (1) That English language courses be made available to young people prior to emigration. (2) That schools provide programmes (and bilingual teachers and counsellors) to facilitate young people's initial adjustment to the new environment. (3) That further research be undertaken to investigate the finding in this study that many young Chinese were likely to remain in a separation state some years after migration.

Scope: A Cultural Identity Scale was adapted and used to measure participants' perceptions of identity (i) as a member of New Zealand society and (ii) as a member of their own ethnic group. This study is drawn from a larger research project:

• Ho, E. 1995b The challenge of culture change: The cross-cultural adaptation of Hong Kong Chinese adolescent immigrants in New Zealand. PhD, University of Waikato, Hamilton.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Asian, Chinese, migrants, survey

I15. Holt, A.A.J., 1999 Culture, ethnicity & identity: A look at first generation children from immigrant Samoan families, MA Anthropology, University of Auckland, Aukland.

Research focus/aims: To examine how New Zealand born children of Samoan immigrants craft their identities in childhood, adolescence and adulthood. To examine how institutions influence the formation of culture, ethnicity and identity among this group. Education, birth order, relations with parents and relations to Samoa are discussed.

Participants: New Zealand born children of Samoan immigrants (abstract only accessed: number and age of participants unstated).

Key findings/outcomes: The perspectives of New Zealand born Samoans on culture, ethnicity and identity are dynamic, changing at various stages of their lives. These changes are the result of specific circumstances, changing perceptions of oneself and of others, and also of others' perceptions of oneself.

Scope: Methods not stated.

Keywords: identity, family, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, New Zealand born

I16. Humpage, L., 2000a 'Embodying ambiguity: Somali refugee women and ethnic boundary 'maintenance'', Women's Studies Journal, 16, 2, 9-28.

Research focus/aims: To examine the concept of ethnic boundaries; to highlight one way in which gender and ethnicity interact with the processes of migration and resettlement; to explore the complexity and ambiguity inherent in this interaction.

Participants: Somali refugee adolescents in Christchurch.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) The process of ethnic boundary maintenance that occurs during resettlement is not always negative, nor always endured passively by women. Participants were involved in the active negotiation of the ethnic boundaries that they embodied. (2) The positioning of the young Somali women as the embodiment or 'markers' of ethnic boundaries has assisted them to avoid much of the cultural marginalisation experienced by their male counterparts.

Scope: Study arises out of a Masters thesis project in which Somali refugee adolescents in a Christchurch school were interviewed. See:

• Humpage, L., 1998a [E63] Refuge or turmoil? Somali adolescent refugees in Christchurch schools: intercultural struggle and the practices of exclusion: A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Sociology in the University of Canterbury, Christchurch.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Somali, refugees, interviews

I17. Johnson, H., 2005 'Dancing with Lions: (Per)forming Chinese cultural identity at a New Zealand secondary school', Asian Studies Journal, 7, 2, 171-186.

Research focus/aims: To explore how Chinese identity is formed as a result of amateur performance activities among a group of secondary school students at an Auckland school.

Participants: Lion dance troupe and musicians (n=5), teachers at the school. The students were of Chinese ethnicity, some born in New Zealand, others born elsewhere.

Key findings/outcomes: The lion dance, performed by the students in the schools' Intercultural Week, is central to the performers' construction of Chinese cultural identity in the New Zealand context, enabling them to connect with and carry on Chinese tradition and to showcase Chinese culture to their peers. Through belonging to the dance group, they experience a common cultural bond and also facilitate school-community relationships.

Scope: Multi-method including participant observation and interviews.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, education - secondary, Asian, Chinese, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, participant observation, interviews

I18. Kong, A., 1975 A comparative study in assimilation between the second generation local born Chinese and the Malaysian-Singaporean born Chinese in New Zealand, MSocSc Psychology, University of Waikato, Hamilton.

Research focus/aims: To explore assimilation of second generation Chinese in New Zealand by (i) investigating the extent of assimilation among New Zealand born Chinese and (ii) comparing these rates of assimilation with those of Singaporean/Malaysian born Chinese young people in New Zealand.

Participants: New Zealand born Chinese (n=24), Overseas born Chinese (n=29), Kiwis (a control group, n=28).

Key findings/outcomes: (1) New Zealand born Chinese had not reached a high level of assimilation; most were in the early transitional stages of breaking away from their cultural heritage. (2) New Zealand born Chinese were significantly more assimilated than overseas born Chinese.

Scope: Eleven questionnaires covered: choice, slang, social distance, satisfaction, problems, activities, and identification.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Asian, Chinese, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, survey

I19. Leung, C.P., 2002 Untold stories: the settlement experiences of some Chinese adolescent immigrants living in New Zealand's small towns, MSocSc, University of Waikato, Hamilton.

Research focus/aims: To explore the settlement experiences of a group of Chinese adolescent immigrants living in New Zealand small towns, focusing in particular on: general experience of life in New Zealand; ethnic identity and community; schools and teachers; peer relationships.

Participants: Adolescent Chinese immigrants (n=12) living in four small towns in the Waikato and Bay of Plenty regions.

Key findings/outcomes: General experience was reported as positive. Factors facilitating positive settlement experiences: English competency was identified as the main factor, with settlement experience improving over time as English competency improved. Living in small towns facilitated interaction with the host community, and these contacts also facilitated integration into New Zealand society and culture.

Scope: Semi-structured interviews.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, language, peer relationships, Asian, Chinese, migrants, overseas born, interviews

I20. Lin, E.-Y., 2006 Developmental, social and cultural influences on identity conflict in overseas Chinese, PhD Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To examine the concept of identity conflict (in which individuals must choose between two or more different identities that prescribe incompatible behaviours) as a key component in the cross cultural adaptation of Chinese young adults. Involves three related studies addressing identity conflict from three different theoretical perspectives. The first looked in particular at family-related variables, the second at intergroup variables such as contact with host nationals, host language proficiency etc. The third compared similar groups in New Zealand and Singapore.

Participants: Each study involved Chinese young adult migrants from Mainland China or Taiwan aged between 16 and 28 years living in New Zealand. Study 1 involved 304 young adults, two-thirds of whom were international students; the remainder were New Zealand citizens or permanent residents. Study 2 involved 205 young adults. Again, most (80 percent) were international students. Study 3 involved Chinese students studying in Singapore (n=263), and in New Zealand (n=186).

Key findings/outcomes: This thesis tested a great many hypotheses. General findings include: across the three data sets, intergroup variables (Study 2) played the most significant role in predicting levels of identity conflict; developmental variables (Study 1) played only a slight role; cultural context (Study 3) affected the outcome of identity conflict, with those in a relatively different cultural setting (New Zealand) experiencing greater identity conflict than those in a relatively similar setting (Singapore) but the process of developing identity conflict was mainly influenced by intergroup variables.

Scope: Survey questionnaires.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Asian, Chinese, migrants, overseas born, survey

I21. Lindsey, D.G. and Kearns, R.A., 1994 'The writing's on the wall: graffiti, territory and urban space in Auckland', New Zealand Geographer, 50, 2, 7-13.

Research focus/aims: To explore the link between signature style graffiti and the experience of urban space, including an exploration of graffiti writers' concept of territoriality. Notes that taggers tend to be youthful and from ethnic minority groups. Notes that Maori and Pacific young people have tended to adopt American Black culture in relation to tagging.

Participants: Representatives of the Police, retailers, city councillors, social workers, members of the public, active taggers. Also, 456 tags at randomly selected sites in three Auckland areas (Downtown, Newmarket and Otara) were examined.

Key findings/outcomes: Gangs (Black Power and Mongrel Mob) do not use graffiti to mark boundaries; most taggers are aged 10-16 years; taggers are usually not 'street kids' or homeless; taggers in the Auckland sites investigated do not use tagging to mark territory; tagging is often spontaneous; taggers are adopting styles drawn from American culture rather than from their own Pacific cultures.

Scope: Covered only three areas in Auckland and notes that wider investigation may reveal different findings. Numbers of those interviewed not stated.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, crime, Pacific, Maori, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews

I22. Luk, Sl., 1993 'Adolescent identity disorder: A case presenting with cultural identification problem', Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 27, 1, 108-114.

Research focus/aims: To describe the case of a 15 year old Chinese boy, a second generation immigrant to New Zealand, who was diagnosed with identity disorder. Cultural issues were recognised as playing an important role in this case.

Key findings/outcomes: The boy was not doing well in English at school and this contributed to his over-identification with Chinese culture and his wish to return from New Zealand to China. The diagnosis recognised that the establishment of identity is important for adolescents and led to therapeutic work that focused on the boy's needs.

Scope: Case study.

Keywords: health - mental, identity - acculturation, Asian, Chinese, New Zealand born, case study

I23. Macpherson, C., 2002 'From moral community to moral communities: The foundations of migrant social solidarity among Samoans in urban Aotearoa/New Zealand', Pacific Studies, 25, 1/2, 71-93.

Research focus/aims: Explores the generational differences emerging in the Samoan population in New Zealand between the Samoan born (now aging) population of migrants and the New Zealand born children and grandchildren of this group who are becoming increasingly influential in the Samoan community.

Key findings/outcomes: The two groups have substantially different cultural capital (traditional Samoan vs. a combination of Samoan and Palagi). Argues that the younger group has redefined 'Samoanness' and have altered its content in significant ways, adopting new ways of being Samoan in an urbanised, industrial society.

Scope: An analysis drawing on research literature relating to the demographic, economic, social and political factors that have influenced the characteristics of the Samoan population in New Zealand.

Keywords: family - intergenerational relationships, identity - acculturation, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, literature review

I24. Meanger, S., 1989 Adolescent Gujurati Indians in New Zealand: Their socialisation and education, MA, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To explore aspects of the education of young New Zealand Gujurati Indians in terms of the social experience of their schooling, the influence of the school system and the formal curriculum on their socialisation.

Participants: Gujurati Indian pupils (n=23 girls, 15 boys) in their fifth form year in Wellington secondary schools.

Key findings/outcomes: The young people participated in, and identified with both their own ethnic group and with New Zealand society. They are more firmly embedded in the Gujurati community, participating less in wider New Zealand society. They are well aware of the boundaries within which their parents' and the wider Gujarati community would like them to remain. Two strong incentives for not crossing these boundaries are fear of gossip and the guilt of obligation. Argues that these young people experience conflicting systems of meaning and values but remain able to develop consistent guidelines for behaviour and a coherent base for the establishment of bi-cultural identity.

Scope: Small scale qualitative study using semi-structured interviews.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, education - acculturation, education - secondary, Indian - Gujurati, migrants, New Zealand born, interviews

I25. New Zealand Immigration Service, 2004 Refugee Voices: A Journey Towards Resettlement. Refugee Resettlement Project, New Zealand Immigration Service, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To describe refugees' resettlement experiences over a broad range of areas including their backgrounds, information they had about New Zealand prior to arrival, arrival experiences, housing, getting help, family reunification, health, learning English, adult education, labour force and other activities, financial support, children and teenagers, social networks, discrimination, cultural integration, and settling in New Zealand.

Participants: Recently arrived refugees (in New Zealand for six months): 50 Quota refugee family groups (n=96), 38 Convention refugee families (n=42), 47 Family reunification groups (n=71). Established refugees (in New Zealand for about 5 years) were all Quota refugees (n=189). Teenagers participating were aged between 13 and 19 years. Among the recently arrived refugees, 26 teenagers participated at six months, and 20 at two years. Among the established refugees, 32 teenagers participated.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Recently arrived teenagers noted several key differences between being a teenager in New Zealand and in their home country including greater freedom in New Zealand, more educational opportunities in New Zealand, and more respect for parents and teachers in their own culture. (2) This group (at both six months and two years) said that what they liked about New Zealand included: going to school, being able to engage in sport and leisure activities, having friends, having better opportunities. (3) Established refugee teenagers responded similarly: the list of what they liked increased the longer they had been in New Zealand. (4) Commonly these groups said there was nothing they disliked about New Zealand. A small number mentioned lack of respect among their New Zealand peers for those in authority, having to go to co-educational schools, and discrimination. (5) The main factor cited as helping teenagers to adjust to school was their teachers. Also important were friends, family and knowing some English. (6) Most said that school became easier over time. Most liked school although some mentioned difficulties with language, discrimination and teachers. (7) Most regarded their adjustment to settling in New Zealand as an easier process than that experienced by their parents. Most had helped their families to settle through, for example, translating, helping with household chores and childcare. (8) Most common advice they would give to other teenagers was to work hard at school. (9) Those who took part in focus groups felt it was important to maintain their own culture and, for some who had grown up in refugee camps, learning about their own culture was important.

Scope: A large scale project. Participants were interviewed through a structured questionnaire. Some focus groups were also carried out. A purposive sampling frame was developed to ensure a balanced sample with respect to gender, nationality, age and family size. This was not necessarily a representative sample. This report is the final, full report in a series of three:

• The first is Gray, A. and Elliott, S., 2001 Refugee Resettlement Research Project, 'Refugee Voices': Literature Review, New Zealand Immigration Service, Wellington.

• The second report (see Dibley and Dunstan 2002 [I9]), presented an overview of initial findings in the project using data from interviews with the recently arrived refugees (n=209) who were interviewed six months after arrival. Individuals from this group (n=189) were re-interviewed again after two years.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, education - secondary, family - intergenerational relationships, refugees, survey, interviews

I26. Niulevaea, M. 2001 To code-switch or not to code-switch: Language use patterns of Samoan adolescents as a measure of attitude and perception on identity, culture, and social behaviour, MA Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To explore the theory that bilingual speakers are able to use their languages alternately, depending on objectively witnessed and subjectively disguised factors. (Abstract only accessed.)

Participants: Three groups of Samoans (secondary school students, university students and church youth group members), aged 15-30 years (number not stated).

Key findings/outcomes: Supports the assumption that language use among bilingual speakers is affected by objectively defined factors such as the presence of a particular interlocutor. Subjective issues including attitude, perception and identity are factors in choice of language in any particular situation.

Scope: Survey looking at language use among family and friends, language attitudes, language and identity, social behaviour and demographics.

Keywords: identity - language, bilingual, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, New Zealand born, survey

I27. Oliver, P. and Vaughan, G., 1991 'How we see one another: Interethnic perceptions of New Zealand teenagers', Journal of Intercultural Studies, 12, 1, 17-38.

Research focus/aims: (1) To investigate interethnic perceptions among young New Zealanders; (2) to compare two methods of collecting trait descriptions of different groups: through a traditional trait list, and using a free response questionnaire.

Participants: Fifth form students (n=170) from four schools in the Auckland region. The sample included only those who identified solely as Pakeha (n=92), Maori (n=35) or Samoan (n=43). There were slightly more girls (92) than boys (78). Age range: 15-16 years.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Most of the in-group descriptions used were generally positive. (2) Outgroup descriptions were mixed: Pakeha were most positively described, but were also the most pejorative in their descriptions of the other groups, while Samoans were the most positive of the three in their outgroup descriptions. (3) Samoans were more likely than the other two groups to describe these groups as racist, and they used skin colour to describe themselves and others more often than Maori or Pakeha. (4) Suggests that the free response questionnaire gave participants more scope to use colloquial and emotive content in their descriptions than is generally possible in a trait list.

Scope: A free response questionnaire was used and the data analysed through content analysis.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Pacific, Samoan, Maori, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

I28. Raza, F., 1997 Ethnic identity, acculturation, and intergenerational conflict among second-generation New Zealand Indians, MA Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: (1) To assess the applicability of the culture conflict model of second generation immigrant adaptation in relation to second generation Indian immigrants in New Zealand. (2) To identify any important demographic differences in the socio-psychological adaptation of participants.

Participants: Second generation New Zealand Indians (n=65), aged 18-25 years.

Key findings/outcomes: Little support was found for the culture conflict model. Respondents were found to maintain an integrated (bicultural) ethnic identity, with little apparent evidence of conflict. Suggests that participants' New Zealand and Indian identities are relative separate constructs. Participants reported low levels of intergenerational conflict. Acculturation, ethnic identity, traditionalism and intergenerational conflict were found to be generally unrelated. Gender, religion, and parents' country of origin were associated with differences in ethnic identity, acculturation, traditionalism and intergenerational conflict.

Scope: A questionnaire designed to assess ethnic identity, acculturation, traditionalism and intergeneration conflict was administered and analysed statistically.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, family - intergenerational relationships, Indian, migrants, New Zealand born, survey

I29. Skarott, M., 1997 'Immigrants and refugees: Their portrayal in contemporary fiction for children and young adults', Talespinner, 3, 50-60.

Research focus/aims: To explore the portrayal of immigrants and refugees in contemporary fiction for children and young adults in terms of four stages in immigrant/refugee experience: decision, journey/flight, transition and adjustment. Compiles an annotated bibliography of 28 books.

Key findings/outcomes: No fictional material with a New Zealand setting was found. The books included covered a wide range of ethnic groups, historical events and stages in immigrant/refugee experience. In the sample of books read, more books were available for older than younger readers. Suggests similar research should examine fiction relating to the long-term consequences of being a migrant or refugee around issues of culture loss and intergenerational conflict.

Scope: Books accessed were limited to those held in the National Library Children's Collection, Wellington District Centre collection of the School Library Service and the Wellington Public Library.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, migrants, refugees, overseas born, review

I30. Tunufa'i, L. F., 2005 The price of spiritual and social survival: Investigating the reasons for the departure of young New Zealand born Samoans from a South Auckland Samoan Seventh-day Adventist Church. A thesis submitted to the Auckland University of Technology in partial fulfilment of the degree of Master of Arts in Social Science, Auckland [electronic resource].

Research focus/aims: To identify the reasons for the departure of young New Zealand born Samoans from a South Auckland traditional Samoan Seventh-day Adventist Church.

Key findings/outcomes: Concludes that the church atmosphere was antagonistic to the young people's spiritual and social journeys, leading them to look elsewhere for social and spiritual survival. Reversal of this situation would require the church to establish an active and effective system that will enable the concerns and ideas of young New Zealand born Samoans, and of other young people, to be shared, heard and rightly understood by the elders and the leadership of the church.

Scope: Case study.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, peer relationships, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, New Zealand born, case study

I31. Tupuola, A.M., 1998 'Adolescence': myth or reality for 'Samoan' women?:Beyond the stage-like toward shifting boundaries and identities. A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To explore perspectives on adolescence held by young women of Samoan descent in New Zealand in the light of current dominant theories that conceptualise personal and ethnic identity formation as essential developmental processes of adolescence.

Participants: Young Samoan women aged 16-18 years (n=40) born in New Zealand.

Key findings/outcomes: There are problems with dominant concepts of adolescence with respect to assumptions about personal and ethnic identity formation for ethnic minority youth. Assumptions about the universality of identity formation as progressive or stage-like do not adequately encompass the experiences of participants. In particular: (1) Culture, broadly understood, and gender play significant roles in the ways in which different populations make sense of adolescence. (2) Fa'aSamoa has different meanings in different contexts. (3) Concepts commonly used in discussions about ethnic minority youth such as 'cultural hybridity', 'diaspora', and labels such as 'Samoan' and 'New Zealand born Samoan' may not be useful in understanding the process of identity formation for young people of Samoan descent in New Zealand. For example, when asked to give their ethnic identification, participants various described themselves as 'New Zealand born Samoan', 'Samoan', 'Kiwi', 'Niu Sila Samoan', 'multi-ethnic', 'Polynesian', 'Welsh Samoan', 'Samoan Maori', 'European Samoan', 'New Zealander'. These young people's identities were revealed as highly complex and shifting.

Scope: PhD thesis involving data gathering through literature and oral narratives as well as video recording.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, New Zealand born, interviews, participant observation

I32. Tupuola, A.M., 1999 'Shifting identities for Pacific diasporic youth in New Zealand: Research and methodological implications into the 21st century'. Educating Pasefika Positively: Conference Proceedings: Pacific Islands Educators' Conference, Auckland, 13-15 April.

Research focus/aims: To examine the concept of identity in the context of globalisation and the diaspora of Pacific people. In particular, to consider this in relation to the transient and multiple identities of young people of Pacific descent living in New Zealand. To consider the methodological implications for researching Pacific youth in New Zealand in light of the methods used in this research.

Participants: Young Samoan women aged 16-18 years (n=40) born in New Zealand.

Key findings/outcomes: The boundaries, both cultural and social, between westernisation and fa'aSamoa are not clear cut. Westernisation played an important part in the lives of many participants through, for example, family upbringing, media, popular culture and globalisation. This means that these young people's identities are highly complex. The assumption, often made, that young people of Samoan descent in New Zealand move only between two cultures should be reconsidered. The common binary of 'Island born' and 'New Zealand born' cannot encompass the complexity of identity for these young people. Methodologically, this research recognised that participants held diverse definitions and interpretations of fa'aSamoa. Consequently, the research approach acknowledged that traditional fa'aSamoa protocol had limited relevance for such a diverse group. Its principles (e.g. fa'aaloalo - respect, and tautua - service) were used in different ways in different contexts during the research. As well, the influence of westernisation was acknowledged in the research process in keeping with the experience of many participants. The role of the researcher as an 'insider' is also considered.

Scope: Draws on research from PhD thesis (see Tupuola 1998 [I31]).

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, New Zealand born, interviews, participant observation, research methods

I33. Tupuola, AM., 1993 Critical analysis of adolescent development: A Samoan women's perspective, MA Education, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To offer an alternative reading of Mead's Coming of Age in Samoa; to examine adolescent development from the perspective of Samoan women within a non-traditional framework.

Participants: 13 Samoan women (including the researcher), New Zealand born (n=7) and Samoan born (n=6).

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Participants questioned the psychological and psycho-analytical definition of adolescence current during Mead's era and argued that the concept of adolescent development prevalent in western societies was a foreign one but nevertheless influential in Samoan girls' lives as they become exposed to westernisation. (2) Participants observed that living in two cultures was stressful, particularly in terms of the different expectations of aiga (family) and fa'aSamoa on one hand, and of western culture on the other. (3) Notes the emergence of indigenous scholarship arising from a drive by indigenous people for self-empowerment in both research methods and literary structure.

Scope: Method involved group meetings for reflection on Mead's research and on extracts from human development texts and literature examining adolescent development. For further work that draws on this thesis project, see:

• Tupuola, AM., 1996 "Learning sexuality: young Samoan women." Women's Studies Journal 12, 2, 59-75. This article explores why learning sexuality may be a cultural dilemma for young Samoan women. Discusses the expectations placed on young Samoan women within fa'aSamoa, and some of the difficulties these young women face within traditional social structures. Stated implications of the research: (1) Sex education programmes and services for this group should empower them by including them in development, implementation and evaluation processes. (2) Health authorities and elders/aiga/parents should be encouraged to come to community fonos (forums) run by the young people in order to learn about the perspectives on sexuality held by these young people. (3) The term 'sexuality' must be redefined by young Samoan women so that services and programmes can take, as their starting point, these young women's own interpretations of sexuality. (4) Programmes need to recognise the heterogeneity of this group by being flexible and collaborative and by reflecting both Samoan and western principles and lifestyles.

• Tupuola, A.M., 1998 'Fa'asamoa in the 1990s: young Samoan women speak.' Feminist Thought in Aotearoa/New Zealand: Differences and Connections. Plessis, R. DU., & Alice, L. (eds) Auckland: Oxford University Press, 51-56.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, health, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, interviews

I34. Underhill-Sem, Y. J. and Fitzgerald, T.K., 1996 Paddling a multicultural canoe in bicultural waters: ethnic identity and aspirations of second generation Cook Islanders in New Zealand, Christchurch: Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies.

Research focus/aims: To explore the changing ethnic identity among second generation Cook Islanders by examining their aspirations and identity.

Participants: Cook Islanders (n=50) raised in New Zealand, aged 15-31 years.

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Participants had a primary commitment to New Zealand, but did not reject Cook Island culture, which was seen as centring around a family/kinship ethic. (2) English was the main language of most participants. Knowledge of Cook Island Maori was not extensive and was mainly used (if at all) in particular contexts (church, Island related activity, extended family). (3) Links with the Cook Islands appeared to be diminishing with this generation, and many are displaying closer cultural affinity with other young New Zealanders in domains such as sport, music/dance events, activities with peers. Participants displayed some cultural ambivalence over the advantages of valuing and emphasising their ethnicity on one hand and the risk that, if they do this, they will endanger their own social mobility and economic opportunity. Respondents were proud of family closeness, respect for elders and other Cook Islands cultural values, but also wished to reconsider conservative gender roles and some other Island related activities such as feasting. (4) Participants hoped their children would be bicultural, and many hoped they would be bilingual as well.

Scope: Participant observation including in-depth formal and informal interviews. Participants gathered through snowballing technique. Notes that, because of this, some social networks were left out, notably the church-going community. See also:

• Fitzgerald, T. K., 1989 'Coconuts and Kiwis: identity and change among second generation Cook Islanders in New Zealand', Ethnic Voices, 7, 4, 259-289.

• Fitzgerald, T. K., 1988 Aspirations and identity of second generation Cook Islanders in New Zealand, Department of Education, Wellington.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, family - language, family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, Cook Islands, New Zealand born, interviews, participant observation

I35. Vaoiva, R., 1999 New Zealand born Pacific Island Youth: Identity, Place and Americanisation, Geography, Auckland University of Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To explore New Zealand born Pacific Island youth identity and, in particular, to study how place and 'Americanisation' are used by these young people in their sense of identity.

Participants: New Zealand born Pacific Island young people (n=10).

Key findings/outcomes: Questions the idea that Pacific Island youth are 'wanna be' Afro-Americans. Argues instead that these young people use 'Americanisation' to establish a distinct identity as New Zealand born Pacific Island youth. Argues for the importance of giving these young people a voice in academic research.

Scope: Data were gathered from individual interviews with each participant and through participant observation among different groups of Pacific Island youth.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Pacific, New Zealand born, interviews, participant observation

I36. Walkey, F. H. and Chung, R. CY., 1996 'An examination of stereotypes of Chinese and Europeans held by some New Zealand secondary school pupils', Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27, 3, 283-292.

Research focus/aims: To identify and compare the nature of the stereotypes about Chinese and European New Zealanders held by New Zealand secondary school students of Chinese and European descent.

Participants: Chinese and European New Zealand students from the third, fourth and fifth forms (years 9-11) in 14 state secondary schools in Wellington (n=159 students in each group).

Key findings/outcomes: Stereotypes of Chinese and European New Zealanders were consistent across the two groups. Both groups rated the Chinese above Europeans on work ethic, and on social control (on a scale of social vs. individual control). Argues that, although this stereotype of the Chinese can be seen as positive, it may have negative implications, particularly for those in the Chinese-New Zealand population who do not conform to the 'model minority' stereotype. For example, refugees and newly arrived migrants who may be living in poverty and behave in more traditional ways may feel the impact of this stereotype if mainstream society regards them as failing to live up to being model citizens as prescribed by the stereotype.

Scope: As part of a survey of intercultural stereotypes and educational aspirations, 21 bipolar pairs of adjectives were put before students who were asked to position 'Chinese' or European' on a five point scale between each pair. Factor analyses were used to analyse the responses.

For the thesis from which this article was drawn, see Chung, CY. R., 1983 Academic expectations and intercultural stereotypes: a study of Chinese and European New Zealanders, MA Thesis, MA, Victoria University of Wellington.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Asian, Chinese, Pakeha, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

I37. Ward, C. and EY. Lin, 2005 'Immigration, acculturation and national identity in New Zealand', in Liu, J.H., McCreanor, T., McIntosh T., and Teaiwa T., (eds) New Zealand Identities: Departures and Destinations, 155-173, Wellington: Victoria University Press.

Research focus/aims: To investigate which acculturation orientations are preferred by young immigrants to New Zealand (integration, assimilation, separation, marginalisation).

Participants: New Zealand adolescents including: Pacific (n=162, 38 percent overseas born); Chinese (n=103, 76 percent overseas born); New Zealand European (n=247, 97 percent locally born); Maori (n=96, 100 percent locally born).

Key findings/outcomes: (1) Retaining cultural heritage and 'becoming a Kiwi' are both important to new migrants, and there is a strong preference for integration, that is, maintenance of one's heritage culture and adoption of the cultural identity of one's new country. (2) National and ethnic identities were strong in both Pacific and Chinese young people but national identity was stronger among those who were New Zealand born, and those who had greater proficiency in English. (3) New Zealand born migrants were also less inclined towards a separation orientation than those born overseas and were more willing to assimilate. (4) Among Pacific youth, higher self esteem and better adjustment at school were linked to a stronger preference for integration over the other forms of acculturation. (5) Among Chinese students, endorsement of integration was linked to greater life satisfaction, higher self esteem and fewer behavioural problems. (6) Separation, marginalisation and assimilation were linked to negative outcomes, with assimilation shown to be particularly detrimental to Pacific youth and linked to symptoms of psychological distress, behavioural problems, lower self esteem and poorer school adjustment. Concludes that 'obstacles to integrated identities produce conflict. Both ethnic and national identities are core features of immigrant identity and both should be nurtured' (p.161).

Scope: Part of the 13 nation International Comparative Study of Ethno-cultural Youth, using a survey questionnaire and statistical analysis of data. For an account of results of the full ICSEY study across the 13 nations, see Berry, J., Phinney, J., Sam, D., and Vedder, P., (eds), 2006 Immigrant Youth in Cultural Transition: Acculturation, Identity and Adaptation Across National Contexts, London, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Asian, Chinese, Pacific, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, survey

I38. Watts, N., White, C., and Drago, T.A., 2002 Young migrant settlement experiences and issues in New Zealand: two perspectives, Massey University New Settlers Programme, Palmerston North, NZ.

Research focus/aims: To explore the settlement of young people who are new settlers to New Zealand and who are from non-English speaking backgrounds. Two perspectives are examined: (1) younger and older migrant and refugee youth; (2) stakeholders involved in assisting new settlers to develop English language competence.

Participants: New settlers (resident in New Zealand at least one year) aged 10-14 years (n=80) and aged 17-21 years (n=77); stakeholders including voluntary tutors and ESOL specialists.

Key findings/outcomes: Data gathered from the young new settlers indicate that: (1) Most, especially those in the younger group, were adapting readily to using English outside the home, although there were some difficulties in adjusting to New Zealand English expression. (2) The maintenance or development of their ethnic language was proving difficult. (3) They were striving to participate socially with host society members through leisure and recreational activities, although they also wanted more opportunities to make New Zealand friends. (4) There was a general level of happiness to be in New Zealand and of appreciation of the educational and other resources available. (5) Concern was expressed by some of the older group about gaining employment and about possible discrimination in the workplace. (6) Many (from both groups) were unsure whether their futures lay in New Zealand. Notably, these generally positive views from the young people were in some contrast to the focus of the stakeholders who tended to concentrate on the barriers in social participation, education and employment that might limit the opportunities of the young people. The stakeholders stressed that settlement assistance for young new settlers is a shared responsibility (involving the young people, families, communities, institutions, and local and central government).

Recommendations: (1) A partnership approach at all levels. (2) Encouragement should be given to these young people to use opportunities to develop their proficiency in English and their understandings of Kiwi society. (3) The provision of up-to-date information, effective counselling and support to the families of these young people. (4) Provision of assistance to ethnic communities for the maintenance of their language and culture. (5) Encouragement to members of the host society to be aware of the needs of these young people and to be supportive of them. (6) A supportive environment that caters for the social, cultural and linguistic needs of these young people is needed in institutions (especially those involved in education and training). (7) Local and central government should contribute more to the settlement of this group, for example, through dedicated migrant youth workers. (8) An overall policy framework is needed to guide and co-ordinate developments in relation to assistance for these young people.

Scope: Structured interviews were held with new settler participants throughout New Zealand, and two stakeholder meetings were held (in Christchurch and Wellington). The interview schedule was designed with input from a focus group of ESOL advisors, College of Education staff specialising in migrant education, and members of some ethnic groups.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, peer relationships, language, services, migrants, refugees, overseas born, interviews

I39. Wong, L., 1973 Chinese youth in Wellington: A study in social and cultural adjustment of Chinese youth and the Chinese community, 1970-1972. Thesis submitted as part-requirement for the Master of Arts degree in Geography at Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: To account for the social resistance of Chinese youth in New Zealand to the processes of assimilation.

Participants: Wellington based Chinese youth aged 16-29 years who were either born in New Zealand or emigrated to New Zealand under the age of 9 years.

Key findings/outcomes: Found a noticeable social reaction among Chinese youth to assimilation into New Zealand society. This is accounted for by: (1) the resilience and adaptive nature of Chinese institutions in New Zealand including the family and other social organisations; (2) the attitudes (particularly antipathy and hostility) of the host society to the Chinese community in New Zealand.

Scope: Data were gathered from a random sample survey of approximately 100 Chinese youth in Wellington.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Asian, Chinese, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, survey

I40. Wurtzburg, S.J., 2004 'Creating a New Zealand-Styled Fa'a-Samoa: Samoan Identity in Christchurch', New Zealand Sociology, 19, 1, 50-76.

Research focus/aims: To explore the ways in which Samoans living in Christchurch conceptualise their ethnic identity, and how this conceptualisation relates to individual needs and family concerns.

Participants: 24 members of the Christchurch Samoan community, ranging in age from early 20s to mid-60s.

Key findings/outcomes: There are strong social pressures emphasising the importance of family concerns over personal needs; there is resistance to this from many of the younger New Zealand born members of the community. This creates stress for these young people. Emphasises the range of Samoan identities expressed and notes that policy should not emphasise rigid protocols or static community norms as this will not adequately represent the variation in the Samoan community. Policy makers should, however, be attentive to: the importance of language as a marker of ethnicity and group membership; the links between church affiliation and ethnicity; the significance of shame and respect, which have implications for the ways in which Pacific people present themselves in educational and work settings. Ethnic ascriptions are not fixed and may change depending on circumstances.

Scope: Participant observation at Christchurch agencies that counter domestic violence, interviews with organisers of Pacific services, and with members of the Christchurch Samoan community.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, interviews, participant observation

I41. Zemke-White, K., 2001 'Rap Music and Pacific Identity in Aotearoa: Popular music and the politics of opposition', Macpherson, C., Spoonley, P., and Anae, M., Tangata O Te Moana Nui: The evolving identities of Pacific Peoples in Aotearoa/New Zealand, 228-243, Palmerston North: Dunmore Press.

Research focus/aims: To examine and theorise the role of popular music in identity construction among young New Zealanders, particularly those of Maori and Pacific descent.

Data: Content from the work of contemporary New Zealand rap artists.

Key findings/outcomes: Argues that, although rap is a globalised and commodified American musical form, young Maori and Pacific people use rap and hip-hop culture to assert their own identities, history and alliances. Through these forms, they address international alignments as well as local discourses forged from contemporary differences in class and ethnicity.

Scope: Analysis of the work of local rap artists.

Keywords: peer relationships, Maori, Pacific, New Zealand born, review

Research methods

This section lists research (some of which is cited in the sections above) that has paid particular attention to the development of research methods that acknowledge the cultural context of migrant and refugee communities.

R1. Anae, M., 1998 Fofoa-i-vao-'ese: the identity journeys of New Zealand born Samoans, PhD Anthropology, University of Auckland, Auckland.

Research focus/aims: To explore the construction of ethnic identity among a group of New Zealand born Samoans. Specifically, to explore the way fa'aSamoa, church and life in New Zealand influence life choices, the construction of the self and secured identities.

Participants: The Samoan community associated with Newton Pacific Islanders Church in Auckland.

Key findings/outcomes: 'Identity journeys' are explored, that is, the construction of ethnic identity through experimenting with subject positions over time, as a result of challenges to perceived self identities. Three broad findings are outlined: (1) Links between New Zealand born Samoans and other Samoans established through the church, aiga, fa'aSamoa and homeland are differentially complex by virtue of these individuals being born in New Zealand and not Samoa. (2) New Zealand born Samoans are continuously involved in the renegotiation and construction of social roles and identities - but Samoan ethnicity is also a persistent identity system. (3) Ethnicity consists of the shared experiences of an ethnic group involving, in this case, the dynamic interaction between church, culture and identity, e.g. leaving Church, for this group, becomes synonymous with a temporary opting out of Samoan identity. 'Time outs' become crucial coping mechanisms that allow individuals to respond to challenges in their own terms, acting out or accommodating difference rather than succumbing to mental 'unwellness' as a result of their experiences not matching up with their emotional and cognitive knowledge. New Zealand born experiences support the Samoan conception of self as in relationships with other people, both Samoans and New Zealanders, and those who successfully reach a secured identity are able to understand, reconcile and reclaim their own identities in being a Samoan not born in Samoa.

Scope: Ethnography including interviews, discussion groups, participant observation over a period of two and a half years. See also:

• Anae, M., 1998 'Inside Out: Methodological issues on being a 'native' researcher.' Pacific Health Dialogue 5(2), 273-279.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, New Zealand born, ethnography, research methods

R2. Anae, M., Coxon, E., Mara, D., Wendt-Samu, T., and Finau, C., 2001 Pasifika education research guidelines: Final Report, Ministry of Education, Wellington.

These guidelines, produced by the Ministry of Education, are intended to inform researchers working with Pacific peoples in education research. The guidelines are updated regularly and aim to: (1) assist in the production of high quality research that acknowledges the cultural context of Pacific communities; (2) encourage a Pasifika development focus to research; (3) support appropriate and useful consultation and feedback to research participants and Pasifika communities; (4) help to increase the pool of Pacific education researchers.

Keywords: education, Pacific, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, research methods

R3. Mara, D., 1999 'Why research? Why educational research for/by/with Pacific communities in Aotearoa-New Zealand?' Educating Pasefika Positively: Conference Proceedings: Pacific Islands Educators' Conference, Auckland, 13-15 April.

Research focus/aims: To consider a range of research related topics in relation to Pacific students and families in Aotearoa/New Zealand including: the ownership of research, methodologies, ethics, the nature of the researcher and the researched, the outcomes of research.

Key findings/outcomes: Argues for greater involvement by Pacific researchers in educational research; the exploration and development by these researchers of Pacific methodologies (for example, the adaptation of focus group methods in culturally appropriate ways that may include provision for participants to speak in their own Pacific languages, innovative use of advisory groups and formal feedback sessions); the importance of these researchers discussing issues of ownership, method, ethics, the roles of researcher and participants, the outcomes of research. Argues for maintenance by researchers of close links with Pacific parents, teachers and communities.

Scope: Author reflects on her own research projects including: evaluation of the Anau Ako Pasifika Project and of the Pacific Islands School-Parent Community Liaison Project; a report on progress towards licensing and chartering of Pacific Islands early childhood centres, and the report on the implementation of Te Whariki (early childhood curriculum) on Pacific Islands early childhood centres. Critical education research literature is also drawn on.

Keywords: research methods, education - learning styles, education - acculturation, education - bilingualism, education - secondary, education - tertiary, Pacific, migrants, overseas born, New Zealand born, reflection on research methods

R4. Petelo, L. M., 2003 Fa'alogo i leo o le fanau: a qualitative study of the ways in which students of Samoan background experience their education within the University of Canterbury. A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch.

Research focus/aims: To explore the education experiences of students of Samoan background at the University of Canterbury through examining (1) dominant discourses that position these students in particular ways (e.g. within families, church communities and university) and participants' responses to these and (2) power relations produced and reproduced in the university through institutional policies and discursive practices. The study also considers methodological issues that arise from undertaking qualitative cross-cultural research.

Participants: Samoan students (n=22) studying at University of Canterbury. (Also seventh form students (n=9) in Samoa and staff involved in preparing them for university.)

Key findings/outcomes: Dominant discourses and discursive practices in play at the university constitute the participants as 'Other'. The participants experience university as exclusive and isolating. Argues that the university needs to move beyond focusing on deficit accounts of 'barriers' to participation and should instead work out how to disrupt dominant discourses and explore new possibilities to change discursive practices that constitute Samoan students in ways that are isolating and detrimental to them in the institution. Offers a number of recommendations of a practical nature for change in the university.

Scope: In-depth individual and group interviews, analysis of university policy documents. See also:

• Tamasese, K., Peteru, C. and Waldergrave, C., 1997 Ole taeao afua: the New morning: A qualitative investigation into Samoan perspectives on mental health and culturally appropriate services. A research project carried out by the Family Centre, Anglican Social Services, Family Centre, Lower Hutt.

Keywords: education - acculturation, education - tertiary, identity, research methods, Pacific, Samoan, migrant, New Zealand born, overseas born, interviews

R5. Silipa, S., 2004 "Fanaafi o fa'amalama": A light within the light: nurturing coolness & dignity in Samoan students' secondary school learning in Aotearoa/New Zealand. A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch.

Research focus/aims: To examine Samoan secondary school students' classroom experiences and social psychological-cultural learning construction. Explores, in particular, their coping strategies within the classroom and factors that facilitate their thinking and learning.

Participants: Samoan secondary school students (n=9) in years 11 and 12 in a suburban co-educational school in New Zealand.

Key findings/outcomes: Students experienced cultural conflict in their learning between fa'aSamoa and western culture. This conflict can be considered in terms of 'content wavering', which relates to students' interaction with the content of the curriculum, and 'feelings wavering', which relates to socio-cultural and psychological factors. Argues that the ways students cope reveal a process of 'nurturing coolness and dignity'. Coping strategies identified are threefold: (1) 'pacifying and apprenticeship', centring on a pattern of interpersonal engagements in the classroom; (2) 'crafting through guided participation', which relates to students collaborating through communication skills used in socio-culturally oriented common activities; (3) 'ascertaining in participatory appropriation', in which students transformed their ways of knowing of and responsibility for activities through their own participation.

Scope: Participant observation, group discussions, survey of students and teachers, and informal discussions with parents, teachers and students' peers.

Keywords: education - learning styles, education - secondary, identity, research methods, Pacific, Samoan, migrant, New Zealand born, overseas born, ethnography

R6. Suaalii, T.M. and Mavoa, H., 2001 'Who says yes? Collective and individual framing of Pacific children's consent to, and participation in, research in New Zealand', Childrenz Issues: Journal of the Children's Issues Centre, 5, 1, 39-42.

Research focus/aims: To discuss issues surrounding research participation by Pacific children and young people, focusing in particular on the collective nature of rights and knowledge for this group, and the complexities of giving consent to research involvement in cross cultural contexts. Examines (1) the contexts in which individuals do or do not have an individual right of consent; (2) the implications of the valuing by Pacific peoples of collective knowledge; (3) the significance of shame in parental decisions about whether children should participate in research.

Key findings/outcomes: Observes that children's rights in the research context have been framed in terms of western understandings of individualised ownership of knowledge but this is incongruent with the collective nature of ownership and responsibility among Pacific groups. Thus 'for Maori and Pacific peoples, the right to give consent and to pass on knowledge is enmeshed in collective frameworks where the individual is an integral part of an extended family and wider community' (p.39). Children's right to take part in research is governed by epistemologies of parents and others; in Pacific communities, these rights are linked to responsibilities and statuses within a collective framework. Researchers must take heed of this in designing protocols. Emphasises the importance of consultation during all stages of research design, implementation, interpretation and dissemination.

Scope: Wide ranging discussion drawing on New Zealand and international research.

Keywords: research methods, family - intergenerational relationships, Pacific, migrants, New Zealand born, overseas born, review

R7. Tupuola, AM., 1999 'Shifting identities for Pacific diasporic youth in New Zealand: Research and methodological implications into the 21st century.' Educating Pasefika Positively: Conference Proceedings: Pacific Islands Educators' Conference, Auckland, 13-15 April.

Research focus/aims: To examine the concept of identity in the context of globalisation and the diaspora of Pacific people. In particular, to consider this in relation to the transient and multiple identities of young people of Pacific descent living in New Zealand. To consider the methodological implications for researching Pacific youth in New Zealand in light of the methods used in this research.

Participants: Young Samoan women aged 16-18 years (n=40) born in New Zealand.

Key findings/outcomes: The boundaries, both cultural and social, between westernisation and fa'aSamoa are not clear cut. Westernisation played an important part in the lives of many participants through, for example, family upbringing, media, popular culture and globalisation. This means that these young people's identities are highly complex. The assumption, often made, that young people of Samoan descent in New Zealand move only between two cultures should be reconsidered. The common binary of 'Island born' and 'New Zealand born' cannot encompass the complexity of identity for these young people. Methodologically, this research recognised that participants held diverse definitions and interpretations of fa'aSamoa. Consequently, the research approach acknowledged that traditional fa'aSamoa protocol had limited relevance for such a diverse group. Its principles (e.g. fa'aaloalo - respect, and tautua - service) were used in different ways in different contexts during the research. As well, the influence of westernisation was acknowledged in the research process in keeping with the experience of many participants. The role of the researcher as an 'insider' is also considered.

Scope: Draws on research from PhD thesis (see Tupuola 1998 [I31]). See also:

• Tupuola, AM., 1993 'Raising research consciousness the fa'aSamoa way'. New Zealand Annual Review of Education, 3, 175-189.

Keywords: identity - acculturation, Pacific, Samoan, migrants, New Zealand born, interviews, participant observation, research methods

R8. Vaioleti, T.M., 2006 'Talanoa research methodology: A developing position on Pacific research', Waikato Journal of Education, 12, 21-34.

Research focus/aims: To contribute to theorising on Pacific research approaches from a Tongan perspective. Explores Pasifika research methodology based on Talanoa (an approach that is 'ecological, oral and interactive').

Key findings/outcomes: Discusses the concept of Talanoa as a research approach that is 'a personal encounter where people story their issues, their realities and aspirations' and argues that this is an approach that allows 'more mo'oni - pure, real, authentic - information to be available for Pacific research than data derived from other research methods'. Discusses the philosophical and phenomenological bases for Talanoa and the research relationships and processes involved. Details a range of research protocols through which Talanoa proceeds. Discusses some possible concerns and limitations of this approach.

Scope: Analytical review.

Keywords: research methods, Pacific, review