PARENTAL LEAVE AND CARERS LEAVE: INTERNATIONAL PROVISION AND RESEARCH
Introduction
The purpose of this report is to review available international research and information on international provisions of parental leave and carers' leave arrangements, as well as any proposed changes for the future. A commentary to inform ongoing New Zealand policy development regarding leave for parents and carers is provided. The areas of particular interest specified by the Department of Labour, plus other contextual matters relevant to the discussion concern the impacts of:
- ring-fenced paid parental leave;
- part-time parental leave-taking;
- unpaid carers' leave; and
- general overview information, including
- leave provisions (if any) for precarious and casual employees;
- standard duration of post-natal leave overseas:
- findings from existing research evidence on optimal lengths of parental leave, including consideration of WHO and ILO guidelines;
- any proposals for future development of provisions;
- interface with flexible working arrangements; and
- importance of the policy context.
This report is organised into sections that identify and discuss the international evidence and expert commentary available regarding each of the topics above, followed by a brief section discussing the relevance of these findings for New Zealand. Eight appendices provide a series of tables detailing aspects of the specific provisions in the 23 countries reviewed.
Definitions
In this report, the following definitions[1] are used to describe specific types of leave. Not all of the countries reviewed for this report use these exact definitions, however, due to linguistic and cultural differences in each country's terminology.
Statutory leave: Leave provided by law within a country, where the law sets out eligibility and entitlements to time off work and to payment (if any). Payments may be made by the government or by employers as the statute determines.
Maternity leave: Leave generally available to mothers only, except in a very few countries where part of the leave can be transferred to another person if the mother is seriously ill or absent. Maternity leave is usually understood to be a measure to enhance maternal and child health.
Paternity leave: Leave generally available to fathers only, usually to be taken soon after the birth of a child, and intended to enable the father to spend time with his partner, new child and older children.
Parental leave: Leave generally available to mothers and to fathers, either as a non-transferable individual right - where both parents have an individual entitlement to an equal amount of leave - or as a family entitlement to leave that can be divided between the parents as they decide. Parental leave is generally understood to be a care measure, intended to give parents the opportunity to spend time caring for a young child. Parental leave can usually be taken immediately following maternity leave, but in some countries all or part of it can be postponed until later on in the child's life (but usually to be taken before a certain age such as three years). In some countries, parental leave can be taken part-time and combined with part-time work.
Total post-natal leave: The total length of leave available to a family, comprising all of the available leaves to both parents directly associated with childbirth. The length of post-natal leave represents the time a young child would have at least one parent available to care for them full-time, while on leave from work. Considering the length of total post-natal leave makes possible comparisons among countries, since some have very long maternity leave but far less parental leave (eg the United Kingdom), and others have no statutory maternity leave but very long paid parental leave (e.g. Sweden).
Childcare leave: In a few countries, parental leave is supplemented by an additional period of leave intended also as a care measure, usually termed 'childcare leave' or 'home care leave'. Where provided, this extended leave usually is available until the child reaches a certain age such as three or eight years, or the age of compulsory schooling. The leave may be paid, means-tested or unpaid.
Career break: A less common form of leave generally open to all employees, not restricted to providing care.
Carers' leave: Leave available in order to provide emergency or ongoing care for other family members as well as young children.
[1] The basis for these definitions is found in Moss and O’Brien (2006)